Midterm 2 Flashcards
(181 cards)
1
Q
Information processing
A
How children process information about their world; how they manipulate information, monitor it, and create strategies to deal with it
Theoretical approach about cognitive development and how children learn
Maturational changes (how children make cognitive gains) in basic components of a child’s mind
2
Q
“Machinery”
A
Attention, working memory (active), long term memory (passive)
3
Q
Attention
A
“Focusing of mental resources” (eye contact, nodding)
4
Q
Working memory
A
“Manipulate and assemble information”
5
Q
Long term memory
A
“Relatively permanent memory”
6
Q
Lisa’s teacher tells her to try to remember a string of words- ball, hat, tree, fork
A
Attention
7
Q
Lisa’s teacher tells her the string of words again, but this time asks her to say them backwards
A
Working memory (need to manipulate)
8
Q
Lisa’s teacher asks her to write about her favorite memory - Lisa writes about when she went to Disney World three years ago
A
Long term memory
9
Q
Developmental changes in information processing
A
Capacity (amount of information)
Speed of processing (how quickly)
10
Q
Biological changes in information processing
A
Frontal lobes developing (in early childhood), synaptic pruning (taking out what isn’t important), myelination (efficiency)
11
Q
Processing speed
A
How quickly children process information impacts what they can do with the information
The quicker you can process, the more complex ideas you can manipulate in your mind
Changes rapidly across development
Increase in processing speed precedes increase in working memory
12
Q
Amy needs 2 eggs per cake. She bakes 3 cakes. How many eggs did she need?
Amy needs 2 eggs. She bakes 3 cakes. She also needs one egg per 6 cupcakes. She bakes 18 cupcakes. How many eggs does she need all together?
A
If you can easily process the first part it will make the second part a lot easier
13
Q
Processing speed problems in children
A
Falling behind, prolonged time on homework and tests, extra accommodations
14
Q
Encoding
A
The process by which information gets into memory; involves encoding relevant information, ignoring irrelevant information
Example: Amy needs 2 eggs per cake. Amy likes cupcakes better than cakes. Amy bakes one cake. How many eggs does she need?
(Ignore that Amy likes cupcakes better- irrelevant information)
15
Q
Automaticity
A
Ability to process information with little or no effort; with practice, children encode increasing amounts of information automatically
Example: with practice, children do not need to think about each letter when reading, they can process the entire word
Sounding out words while reading as a child, now taking word in as whole, relevant information is first and last letter
16
Q
Strategy construction
A
Creating new procedures for information processing
Involves metacognition (knowing about knowing)
Organizing words
Child knows something about how they learn
Example: a child knows that relating a story to his or her own life will help him/her remember the story better
17
Q
Mechanisms of change
A
Development is gradual
Unlike Piaget, does not view development as occurring in stages
Proposes that individuals gradually develop increased capacity to processing information –> acquiring complex knowledge and skills
18
Q
Selective attention
A
Focusing on a specific aspect of experience that is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant
19
Q
Divided attention
A
Concentrating on more than one activity at the same time
20
Q
Sustained attention
A
Ability to maintain attention to a selected stimulus for a prolonged period of time
21
Q
Executive attention
A
Planning actions, allocating attention to goals, detecting and compensating for errors, monitoring progress on tasks, dealing with novel circumstances
(Executive function)
22
Q
Attention
A
Continues to develop and improve into adulthood (prime at age 25)
23
Q
Go no go
A
84% go, 16% no go
3 go stimuli every 6 seconds
no go stimulus every 10-15 seconds
Works on selective attention, just looking at part of the screen
Works on sustained attention, lasts 15 minutes, helps determine ADD
24
Q
Tower of London
A
Executive attention planning component
Can look at: how well they plan or rule violations (how impulsive they are)
25
Development of attention in infancy
```
Orienting/investigative process
Sustained attention
Habituation and dishabituation
Joint attention
Gets better as you get older
```
26
Joint attention
Requires: ability to track another's behavior, one person directing another's attention, reciprocal interaction
"Gaze following" develops around 10-11 months
Beneficial for learning
In infancy, related to: language development in toddlers, long term memory, self-regulation
27
Attention in childhood
Rapid development during preschool years
Sustained attention and executive attention important for school
Gradually able to direct attention more
What parents think teachers want vs. what they actually want
28
Attention in adolescence
Sustain attention for longer
Divided attention- multitasking
"Cognitive flexibility"
29
Memory
Retention of information over time
| Basis processes: encoding, storage, retrieval
30
Encoding
Getting information into memory
31
Storage
Retaining information over time
32
Retrieval
Taking information out of storage
33
Short-term memory
Limited capacity, retained 15-30 seconds
| Originally thought of as "passive storage house"
34
Long-term memory
Relatively permanent memory
35
Working memory
Mental manipulation
"Work bench"
Often preferred over the term "short term memory"
36
Alan Baddeley's model of working memory
```
Visualspacial working memory, input via sensory memory, phonological loop, rehearsal, long-term memory...
These processes are always going on
Active process (a lot of parts working together)
```
37
Working memory and cognitive development
Working memory and attention predicted growth in emergent literacy and number skills
Working memory predicts foreign language comprehension in school age children
Assessment of working memory in kindergarten predicts math achievement at end of first grade
38
Constructing memories
People construct their own memories; mind can distort information as it is being encoded (won't remember event the same way someone else does who was also there)
39
Schema theory
People mold memories to fit information already in their minds
40
Cultural- specificity hypothesis
To different people, different information is more meaningful
Take in what's interesting to them and relevant to their life
41
Infantile amnesia
Uncommon to remember events prior to 3-4 years old
Adults, older children, school age children do not remember much about early childhood years (prefrontal lobes still immature) (related to brain development more than time span)
World is so different under age 3 when you are being taken care of
42
First memories
Carolyn Rovee-Collier: infants remember perceptual-motor information
Experiment with mobile: baby's ankle tied to mobile with ribbon, baby returned to mobile weeks later, will kick only if mobile is identical
Signifies early memories
43
Implicit memory
Memory without conscious recollection; memories of skills and routines that are performed automatically
44
Explicit memory
Conscious memory of facts or experiences
| Episodic and semantic memories
45
Episodic memories
Autobiographical (events)
46
Semantic memories
Remembering words
47
Hippocampus
Impacts ability to retain and recall information; important for explicit memories
Considerable development between 6-12 months
48
Prefrontal cortex
More involved in episodic memory
| Minor involvement in semantic memory
49
Amygdala
Involved in encoding emotionally balanced memories
"Flashbulb memories"
Older part, has been there evolutionarily
Fear, disorders, phobias, anxiety
Emotionally charged
9/11- fear component, negative charge
Help to avoid danger in future
50
Fuzzy trace theory
Individuals encode two different types of information: verbatim memory trace, fuzzy trace or gist
"Fuzzy traces" used more as children get older; related to improved memory
Fuzzy traces allow you to take in more information, good strategy to use
More bananas than apples, not how many
51
Memory
Continues to improve in adolescence and early adulthood
Depends on content knowledge and expertise
Not always a function of age, but also expertise
52
Chi, 1978
Young chess players and college students
Assessed on auditory working memory, visual memory
College students performed better on auditory working memory (hearing words)
Chess players better on visual working memory (where chess pieces were located on a board) (remember set of faces)
53
Memory span
7 + or - 2 digits
| Short term memory has limited capacity (primacy effects, recency effects)
54
Improve memory with
Processing speed, rehearsal of information, strategies
55
Organization
Improves throughout childhood
Rarely used by preschool age children
Pneumonic phrases
56
Elaboration
Thinking of examples, finding ways to make information meaningful
57
Imagery
Developing a "mental image" to remember material
| Works best for older children
58
Reconstructive memories
Build memories from pre-existing schemas
Memories are vulnerable, have gaps
Children (and adults) fill in information differently
Individual differences in susceptibility
Age differences in susceptibility
Interviewing techniques may produce distortions
Younger children are more susceptible to filling in gaps without being aware
59
Memories at Disneyland
Participants had previously been at Disneyland and were asked to read ads:
1. Ad mentioned no cartoon characters
2. Same add but saw 4 ft cardboard Bugs Bunny
3. Fake ad for Disney with Bugs Bunny
4. Fake ad and 4 ft cardboard Bugs Bunny
Who remembered seeing Bugs Bunny at Disneyland?
10% in groups 1 and 2
30-40% in groups 3 and 4
Bugs Bunny was not at Disneyland
Susceptible to false memories
Letting people fill in the gaps and not knowing if its your own memory
60
"Lost in a shopping mall"
```
Elizabeth Lofus
Study on "childhood memory"
Participants told about being lost in mall
Specifics of story personalized
25% recall event
Not everyone is convinced
```
61
Child interview techniques
```
Open questions (older children)
Focused questions = best
Multiple choice questions
True/fase
Avoid leading questions - don't lead them to any specific answer (sometimes in court these are asked but they should NOT be asked during the initial interview)
```
62
What is the difference between explicit and implicit memory? Give examples
Implicit is automatic response, habit (driving)
| Explicit is episodic, semantic, words, events
63
Semantic clustering is an example of?
Organizational strategy
64
Robert's teacher told the class to study their spelling words for 5 min, write in their journals for 10 min, and work w/ parter on math hw...
Primacy effect
65
Thinking
Transforming and manipulating information in mind
Allows people to reason, reflect, evaluate ideas, solve problems, and make decisions
Takes mental effort
Not automatic
Cognitive domain: thought, intelligence, and language
66
Perceptual categorization
Based on similar perceptual attributes (how they look)
Earlier: 3-4 months
Animals vs. objects
67
Conceptual categorization
Based on concepts (how things go together)
Later: 7-9 months
Dogs vs. barn
68
Concepts
Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
69
Habituation
Kids will dishabituate when things don't belong
70
Analogy
Correspondence between things that are dissimilar
Symbol
"I feel like a fish out of water"
"Life is like a box of chocolate"
71
Tiny room experiment
2 1/2 year olds failed
3 year olds passed
Hide toy in tiny room (doll house), kid sees, hide in real room, 2 year olds search randomly, 3 year olds find it
72
Expanding room experiment
2 1/2 year olds passed
3 year olds passed
Big lights and noises, same room grows bigger, then they find it
73
Scale errors
Attempts to perform tasks on objects of inappropriate size
Trying to sit on Barbie chair
Trying to get in or ride a toy car or go down a doll slide
Explanation: kids perceptions of themselves, fail to recognize their own bodies
2 year olds still making these mistakes (do have a sense of self though)
Pass mirror test but now have emotion to play with toys
74
Strategies
Deliberate, non-obligatory, goal-directed mental operations aimed at solving a problems
Not automatic responses to a problem
Require thinking
Autopilot is NOT a strategy
Multiple strategies to achieve same goal
As kids become older, better able to find best strategy
Examples: A 2 year old stares at the place her toy is hidden so she can find it again after time-out, a 6 year old uses his fingers to count, a 10 year old comes up with a simple song to remember the number of days in each month (chooses and uses strategy to accomplish goal)
All deliberate and mentally effortful
75
Development of strategy use
Older children are more likely to use strategies, select more effective and efficient strategies, and perform better on tasks than younger children
Younger kids can use strategies but don't always recognize them
76
Spontaneous use vs. instruction
Younger kids can be successful with strategies they are taught (can do it if someone tells them to, but wouldn't on their own)
Flavell et al., 1966; Ornstein et al., 1975
Kids had to remember list of words and rehearse
6th graders spontaneously rehearsed
2nd graders rehearse systematically only after instruction
77
Adaptive strategy choice model
Kids use multiple strategies at any given age
| Continuous (gradual flow) vs. discontinuous
78
Critical thinking
Thinking reflectively and productively while evaluating available evidence
"How" and "why" (cause)
Look for evidence and facts (questioning things)
Rely on reason, not emotion
Compare various answers
Not just what happened
79
Critical thinking in adolescence
Older kids are better critical thinkers (process information faster and more efficiently)
More efficient processing
Greater breadth of content knowledge
Ability to integrate/combine knowledge
Greater range and more spontaneous use of strategies
80
Metacognition
"Thinking about thinking"
"Knowing about knowing"
Recognizing what you do and do not know (useful for strategy use)
Higher order thinking
Thinking about first order thoughts
Think about the fact that they are thinking too much
First = individual's own mind (metacognition about their own thoughts)
Second = other's minds (theory of mind) (mete cognition about what is going on in other people's minds)
81
Metacognition in childhood
5-6 year olds know: familiar items are easier to learn than unfamiliar ones, short lists are easier to remember than long lists, recognition (multiple choice) is easier than recall (short answer), forgetting becomes more likely over time
Don't know: related items are easier to remember than unrelated items, remembering the gist of a story is easier than remembering verbatim (small details), they overestimate their own memory capacity
(Gain this understanding by about 5th grade)
82
Metacognition in adolescence
Better able to manage cognitive resources (more efficiently deploy attention to different task aspects)
Better understanding of strategies (when to use them and which to pick)
More use of metacognitive skills in school (monitoring text comprehension: 14 years > 12 years)
Increased individual variation
83
Theory of mind
Awareness of one's own mental processes and the mental processes of others
Recognition that other minds have different thoughts than your own mind
84
3 mental states
Perceptions: Henry sees the car that is in front of him
Emotions: Scarlett feels bad that she broke her brother's toy
Desires: Vince wants the candy in his mother's purse
85
Piaget's mountain task
Example of theory of mind
Child perceives differently than experimenter
Realizing tha other perceptions are different than own
86
Theory of mind scale
```
Diverse desires: 3y 5m
Diverse beliefs: 4y
Knowledge access: 4y 6m
Contents false belief: 4y 11m
Real-apparent emotion: 5y 4m
```
87
Theory of mind: diverse desires
Kid has to judge a choice another person will make
Mr. Jones doesn't like cookies. Which snack should he choose, carrot or cookie?
Kid wants cookie, but realizes people have different desires
88
Theory of mind: diverse beliefs
Child must judge where a person will search
Cat might be in garage or bushes
Where do you think cat is?
If child says bush...they say Linda thinks its in garage
If child says garage...they say Linda thinks its in bush
Where will Linda look?
89
Theory of mind: knowledge access
Kid is shown toy monkey in box
Will girl know what's inside box? (she doesn't)
Recognize girl has different thoughts
90
Theory of mind: contents false belief
Box of band-aids with crayons inside
What's inside?
Kid says band-aid, unexpected crayons inside
Character comes out who has never seen inside
What will he think is inside?
Kid who passes will say bandaids
91
The explicit false belief task
Sally thought marble was in basket
Kid knows marble is in box
Fail- Sally must know also
92
Theory of mind: real apparent emotion
Hardest task
Child sees box of cherios has rocks inside
Give box to stuffed dog
Is spot happy or sad when he gets box?
Happy when gets- thinks they're cherios, sad when looks inside - doesn't want rocks
Kid who fails thinks other minds are just like theirs
93
Intelligence
Ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from experience
94
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Derived from performance on an IQ test (score)
Score means something, but doesn't always reflect intelligence
An individual's mental age divided by actual age, multiplied by 100
Works best in children
Example: 6 yo w/ mental age of 8 yo
95
Mental age
A person's mental development relative to others (MA/CA X 100 = IQ) (Mental age, chronological age)
5/5 X 100 = 100 (average)
96
Meaning of an IQ of 100
```
Mean= 100
Standard deviation = 15
Expect IQ to stay stable
Average = 100
68% of population are falling into standard deviation of 15 (85-115)
```
97
Superior IQ score
Above two standard deviations (above 130)
98
Above average IQ score
Within two standard deviations above (116-130)
99
Average IQ score
Within one standard deviation (85-115)
100
Below average IQ score
Within two standard deviations below (70-84)
101
Impaired IQ score
Below two standard deviations (below 70)
102
Intellectual disability/ mental retardation
Requires three parts: IQ below 70, impairment in adaptive functioning (can they take care of themselves based on their age?), exhibits these features by age 18
103
Degrees of intellectual disabilities
Mild: 55-70, 89%
Moderate: 40-54, 6%
Severe: 25-39, 4%
Profound: below 25, 1%
104
Causes of intellectual disability
Organic (developmental) or cultural/familial
105
Organic
Result of brain damage
| Examples: downs syndrome, fragile X, FASD, anoxia (not enough oxygen to brain)
106
Cultural/familial
Caused by growing up in a low intellectual environment; low stimulation
107
Intelligence tests
Stanford Binet, V (ages 2 through adult)
Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, IV (WPPSI IV, ages 2.5-7)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, IV (WISC-IV, ages 6 through 16)
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, IV (WAIS-IV, ages 16 through adult)
108
Sarah is a gifted 16-year-old who is taking an intelligence test to see if she qualifies for a gifted and talented program. The psychometrist (administers tests) administering the test is most familiar with the Wechsler scales. Which test would be the most appropriate to administer?
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, IV
| Could go either way, but better in her situation to be challenged
109
Bobby is 7-years-old. His parents have concerns about his cognitive development and fear that he is developmentally delayed. Although Bobby is old enough to be administered the WISC-IV, the psychologist administering the test is concerned the material will be too difficult. What should she do?
Administer WPPSI
| Stanford Binet if not aware of his performance
110
Sophie, who is 5, is administered the Stanford Binet V test of intelligence. She performs at the level of a 7-year-old. What is her IQ? What range is Sophie perform in?
7/5 X 100 = 140
| Superior
111
History of Stanford Binet intelligence scales
Original purpose: french government asked Binet to identify intellectually challenged children for their placement in special education (Binet-Simon scale)
Focus: assess skills that provide the foundation for (i.e., predict) school success (attention, memory, problem solving skills, etc.)
112
Lewis Terman
Standardized the Binet-Simon scale with American participants
Adapted version --> Stanford Binet (1916)
Currently on 5th edition
113
Intelligence testing during WWI
World war 1: army officials needed to screen army recruits, used to determine soldier's capability in serving and potential for leadership position
Two versions: Army Alpha, written version and Army Beta, oral equivalent (for illiterate people)
Goal: identify those of superior ability and those with mental defect
Criticisms: you need more than just intelligence when considering a leadership position, IQ is just a number, limitations, underperformance, bad day, anxiety?
114
Wechsler scales
```
Produces an overall IQ scale and scores for specific domains
Full scale IQ or general abilities index
Verbal comprehension
Perceptual reasoning
Working memory- holding information
Processing speed- quick and accurate
```
115
Full scale IQ
Verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed (composite of all scores)
116
General abilities index
Verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning (process slower, take 2 parts out, not holding skills against them)
117
Use of intelligence tests
Predicts school success, work success
Predicts number of years of education
Linked with illness, chronic disease
118
Misuse of intelligence tests
Leads to false expectations about people, many reasons why a person may underperform, IQ can become a "self-fulfilling prophecy"
119
What else matters in predicting important developmental outcomes?
Motivation
Physical health
Mental health
Social skills
120
Sternberg's triarchic theory
Intelligence comes in three forms:
Analytical - analyze, judge, evaluate (lecture)
Creative - create, design, invent, originate, and imagine (music and art classes)
Practical - use, apply, implement, and put into practice
121
Gardner's eight frames of mind
Howard Gardner - there are many different forms of intelligence
Verbal skills: authors, journalists, speakers
Mathematical skills: scientists, engineers, accountants
Spatial skills: architects, artists, sailors
Bodily-kinesthetic skills: surgeons, craftspeople, dancers, athletes
Musical skills: composers, musicians, and music therapists
Intrapersonal skills: theologians, psychologists
Interpersonal skills: teachers, mental health professionals
Naturalist skills: farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers
122
Emotional intelligence
Peter Salovey and John Mayor define as the ability to: perceive and expression emotional accurately and adaptively, understand emotion and emotional knowledge, use feelings to facilities though, manage ones own emotions
Mentioned in Gardener's (interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence) and Sternberg's (practical intelligence) theories
123
Multiple intelligences?
On-going debate
| Some argue for multiple intelligences, some argue for "g"
124
General intelligence or "g"
One broad factor, not broken up into different categories
An individual who is better at one intellectual task is more likely to excel at other intellectual tasks
Controversy: put together or break it up?
125
Neuroscience of intelligence
Brain size: moderate correlation with intelligence
Regions: broadly distributed, particular importance for neural network involving frontal and parietal lobes
Speed of functioning: neurological speed (synaptic connections) faster for gifted children
126
Genetic influences
Estimated that 1000 genes contribute, not able to identify specific genes
127
Adoption studies
Educational levels of biological parents better predictors of children's IQ than adoptive parents
Approximately 12-18 point increase when low-income child adopted into high SES household
128
Heritability of intelligence
Heritability: fraction of variance within a population that is attributed to genetics, population concept (does not apply to individuals)
Heritability of 1.00 = totally genetic
Considered high when > .70
0 = totally environmental
APA estimates heritability of intelligence = .75, suggesting strong genetic component (may very by study/sample)
Can genes and environment really be separated? They act together
129
Restricted range
More enriched environment = higher intelligence (positive correlation)
Looking only at people with enriched environment...no correlation because restricted range
130
Flynn effect
Increase in intelligence scores over time
| People are becoming more intelligent or performing better on these tests over time
131
Flynn effect is thought to be related to:
Improved prenatal care, improved postnatal nutrition, increased schooling and test familiarity (test oriented culture), more stimulating environment
132
Nature vs. nurture
Heredity and environment matter
Disagreement about which matters more
Disagreement about whether it makes sense to consider their contributions separately
133
Intelligence and culture
Different cultures have different values
Western: thinking and reasoning skills
Eastern: way for community to work together successfully
134
Cultural bias in testing
Hot topic in terms of admission tests
Difficult to create "culture-fair tests" (i.e., avoiding cultural bias) - try to reduce questions that favor a specific cultural background, focus on nonverbal questions
May only be possible to create "culture-reduced tests"
135
Ethnic group performance (high to low)
1. Asian americans
2. Non-latino whites
3. Latinos
4. African american
136
Reasons?
Stereotype threat (anxiety about a behavior)
Actual IQ differences
Culturally biased tests
137
Tests of infant intelligence
Bayley Scales of Infant Development, 3rd edition
Cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, adaptive
If you have concerns of delays
138
Performance on tests of intelligence
Strong correlations between time points (.70-.90)
Individual variability
Around the same IQ at age 8 vs. age 15 for same individual
139
Giftedness
Generally thought of as IQ > 130
Other criteria: child is precocious, marching to their own drummer (require less adult assistance), a passion to master, motivated
Nature vs. nurture: likely both hereditary and environmental (family support, training)
140
Importance of gifted and talented programs
Keeps children challenged, engaged
Minimize behavioral disruptions from children who are bored
Allows children to form friendships with similar peers
Relate more to other children: important for social development
141
Short answer: describe what the Flynn effect is and give at least two explanations for it
Increase in intelligence scores over time
Improved prenatal care, improved postnatal nutrition, increased schooling and test familiarity (test oriented culture), more stimulating environment
142
Alfred Binet developed the Binet-Simon scale (an intelligence test that was later adapted and termed the 'Stanford Binet'):
To identify children who needed special education services
143
Which is not an example of an organic cause of an intellectual disability?
Neglect
144
Fill in the blank: IQ tests have a mean of ____ and a standard deviation of ____
100, 15
145
Executive function (EF)
A set of skills needed for top-down, conscious control of thought, emotion, and behavior
AKA: self-regulation, self-control, executive attention, cognitive control, effortful control
EF does not equal IQ
146
Three components of EF
Inhibitory control
Working memory
Cognitive flexibility
147
Inhibitory control
Resisting an automatic response
| "I really want to eat that donut, but I'm on a diet so I will resist."
148
Working memory
Keeping information in your mind
"She just told me her phone number but I don't have a pen so I'll just repeat it over and over in my mind until I find one."
149
Cognitive flexibility
Switching between different rules or ways of thinking
| "We usually have math after recess, but this substitute teacher wants to do things differently, so I'll do it this way."
150
Importance of EF
School: early math and reading ability (better predictor than IQ), SAT scores
Social: social understanding
EF in childhood predicts outcomes at age 32 - physical health, drug dependence, SES, criminality, financial security
Avoided "adolescent traps"
151
EF and the brain
```
Prefrontal cortex (PFC) - front 1/3 of cerebral cortex
Human vs. chimp
```
152
Damage to PFC
Phineas Gage - a foreman working on construction of railroad track in VT in 1848
153
Studying EF and the brain
Accidents/trauma
Animal research
fMRI
154
EF development
Protracted developmental course of PFC
155
Measuring EF
Dimensional change card sort (DCCS) (sort by shape or color)
Bear dragon
Day/night stroop (see sun- say "night", see moon- say "day")
Flanker: press button to match middle fish ignore "flanking" fish
Forward/backward word span: child repeats a series of words
156
Cool vs. hot EF
Increasingly recognized distinction - delays in one area can occur without delays in the other area
Cool EF: decontextualized, strictly cognitive tasks
Hot EF: top-down control processes that operate in motivationally and emotionally significant situations
157
Plasticity
Evidence shows that EF can be trained
Best to train these skills early, in the preschool years (increase in PFC development during this time, easier to build good habits when you aren't breaking bad ones, boost in EF prior to entry into kindergarten - initiate a positive cascade of events)
158
Positive cascade
Establish good relationship with teacher
Increased motivation to learn
Establish positive association with school
Reduce problem behaviors
159
Psychological distancing
Moving away from a first person experience of a situation: the more psychologically distant, the better the EF
Pretend to be batman/dora: "when you play this game, I want you to pretend you are batman. batman is really good at this game!'
Refer to self in 3rd person: "during this game, I want you to ask yourself, is Chloe working hard?"
160
Ready? Set. Go!
Aims to improve EF in homeless/ highly mobile (HHM)
Intervention delivered over 3 weeks: brief but potent, HHM families move around a lot- year long program is too long
Three components: teacher training, parent education, individual support
161
Other EF interventions
```
CogMed
Tools of the Mind
Head Start REDI
Chicago School Readiness Program (CSRP)
Mindful Awareness Practices (MAPS)
Kids in Transition to School (KITS)
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)
```
162
Language
Forms of communication based on a system of symbols (spoken or signed)
Multiple meanings
Learning a new language vs. "watch your language" (specific words)
Different languages have different words, symbols, rules...
163
Common characteristics of all languages
Infinite generativity
| Organization rules
164
Infinite generativity
Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful phrases using a finite number of letters and rules (only 26 english letters) (some have less some have more)
165
Organization rules
Describe the orderly way we use language
| 5 types of organizational rules
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Phonology
The sounds that are used and the rules about how they are combined
167
Phoneme
The smallest unit of sound that affects meaning
Dog vs. dig (middle phoneme)
Fat vs. cat (1st phoneme)
Bat vs. bar (last phoneme)
Vary across languages
/k/ in "ski" and "cat"
/r/ and /l/
Sound
No meaning on its own
Other languages such as arabic, one phoneme might have multiple meanings
Some native speakers can't distinguish /r/ and /l/
Each language has their own rules about which phonemes can be combined
English phoneme combinations:
Sp, ba, ar = permissible
Zx, qf, tb = not permissible
168
Morphology
Rule system that governs how words are formed in a language
169
Morpheme
```
Smallest unit of meaning
Can be and often is more than one letter
Means something even alone
Can be full words, prefixes, suffixes
"do" = 1 morpheme
"doing" = 2 morphemes
"ex-" "-tion" "house" "-er" "pre-" "jump"
Mean-ing = 2
Kill-ed = 2
Toad = 1
Birth-day = 2
Ex-boy-friend = 3
Sparrow-s = 2
```
170
Syntax
The ways words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences
"The boy chased the dog"
"The dog chased the boy"
Same 5 words, but mean opposite of each other
Can get confusing when proper syntax isn't used
Grammar
Rules vary across languages
"Bunny is gorping on duck"
Using made up word - child still understands that order matters
171
Semantics
The meaning of words and sentences
Full words or phrases
"Crash" - car accident, stocks crashed, crash party, sound of waves crashing
"Boy" vs. "man" - semantically similar: male human, semantically different: age
172
Pragmatics
The appropriate use of language in different contexts
Altering communication with different partners
Taking turns in conversation (turn taking, visible in children)
Vary from culture to culture (conventions, saying thank you) - thank friend who makes dinner vs. mom
Understanding language and social context
Talk differently to teacher vs. friends vs. parents
Thank you vs. thanks (difference in formality)
What is appropriate with that certain person
173
Stages of infant in pre-language vocalizations
Crying: from birth (only way to communicate needs)
Cooing: at 1-2 months, gurgling, back of throat noises
Babbling: around 6 months, pronunciation of vowel combinations (mama, dada, gaga)
Deaf babies "babble" at the same time as hearing, only if exposed to a sign language (babble with their hands)
174
Categorical phoneme perception
/pa/ vs. /ba/
pa pa pa pa pa pa ba ba ba ba ba
Infants can tell one sound from another
175
Infants abilities
All phonemes before 6 months
| Specialize: 6-12 months
176
Neural plasticity/pruning
More efficient networks
177
Statistical learning
Pret-ty ba-by
178
Language in infancy
Comprehension before production
First word: between 10-15 months - concrete nouns and important people, "ball" "mama" "car" "dog" "dada"
Language "spurt:" 13-24 months
Telegraphic speech: 18-24 months old, "more milk" "mama walk" "want ball"
179
Language in early childhood
Full sentences: 2-3 years old
Produce all consonant and vowel sounds: 3 years old
Understanding of morphological rules also increases
Wugs
18 months-6 years: one word per waking hour
14,000 words by first grade
Fast mapping: word learning after a single exposure
Theory of mind and pragmatics: things in view, things that happened in past, taking turns
Understanding of pragmatics improve
180
Language in middle childhood
Metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language, thinking about language, understanding what a "noun" is vs. an "adjective", able to think about what words are and define them
14,000 words at 6 --> 40,000 words at 11
Understanding complex comparisons and subjunctives ("shallower" vs. "deeper", "if I were president..")
Understand more complex grammar - "the boy who kissed his mother wore a hat he got from her"
181
Language in adolescence (teenagers)
Better abstract thinkers - able to reflect on a word's purpose in a sentence
Understanding metaphors
Using sarcasm and satire
Teenage "dialect" (slang words)
Words don't always literally mean what they say
