Midterm 3 Flashcards
(316 cards)
1
Q
Evolution of emotions
A
emotions are linked with regions of human nervous system- limbic system, brain stem
2
Q
Primitive/reptillian brain
A
limbic system
3
Q
Emotions that infants are capable of showing
A
distress, excitement, joy, rage
4
Q
Development of prefrontal cortex
A
exerts control over limbic system, increases self-regulation of emotions, rapid development during preschool years (3-5), deals with raw emotions, children will have to regulate emotions to function in school and with their peers
5
Q
Limbic system
A
thalamus, hypothalamus, frontal lobe, olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus
6
Q
Amygdala
A
senses fear and danger, distinguishes different emotions
7
Q
Primary emotions
A
appear in first 6 months of life: joy, sadness, fear, surprise
8
Q
Culture and emotion
A
different expectations across cultures
9
Q
Display rules
A
where, when, and how emotions should be expressed, east asian parents encourage “emotional reserve” opposed to “emotional expressivity”, Japanese parents try to prevent children from experiencing negative emotion, non-latino white mothers more likely to try to soothe children and help them cope
10
Q
Self-concious emotions
A
developed around 18 months, higher level of emotions, being aware of expectations, includes: pride, shame, embarrassment, guilt, requires self-awareness
example: mother is holding baby doll, baby cries, is baby jealous or just wants to play with toy?
11
Q
Functionalist view of emotions
A
emotional expressions serve various purposes: showing how one is feeling, regulating one’s own behavior, linked with goal achievement, showing emotions can help self-regulation, can be a form of communication
12
Q
Function of smiling
A
communicate joy, participation in shared joy, build a relationship/bond
13
Q
Reflexive smile
A
response to internal stimuli (gas, digestion)
14
Q
Social smile
A
response to external stimuli (mother)
15
Q
Anticipatory smile
A
communicate pre-existing positive emotion, baby shares that they’re already happy (smile at object then look at mother, wanting to share joy)
16
Q
Stranger anxiety
A
begins at about 6 months, intensifies by 9 months, context matters (safe environment)
17
Q
Protest separation
A
separation anxiety, peaks at about 15 months in US infants, different across cultures
18
Q
Function of crying
A
to communicate
19
Q
Basic crying
A
rhythmic pattern of cry, brief silence, shorter whistle (hungry, diaper change)
20
Q
Anger crying
A
basic cry with more force
21
Q
Pain crying
A
sudden, long, initial cry, then breath holding
22
Q
Why do adults cry?
A
emotional tears are uniquely human, relief, communicate need some sort of assistance
23
Q
Co-escalation
A
infants and parents modify reactions in response to each other, example a dysregulated child may act out, talk back to a parent, who in turn starts yelling at the child
24
Q
Emotion regulation and coping in caregivers
A
help regulate infants before and when they become agitated, positive parenting predicts high level of emotional regulation in emotionally reactive infants
25
Emotion regulation and coping in infants/toddlers
self soothe (suck thumb), distract self (look away), use language
26
Too soothe or not to soothe?
John Watson: parents spend too much time responding to infants, "spoil" them
Bowlby & Ainsworth: no such thing as too much soothing, spoiling an infant
27
Co-regulation --> self-regulation
changing balance between other regulation and self-regulation as child develops into adult, start as co-regulators, end as self-regulators but always doing both
28
Emotion coaching
negative emotions are opportunities for teaching
29
Emotion dismissing
negative emotions need to be changed
30
Emotional competence
developing skills to effectively manage emotions in a variety of settings and situations, involves: understanding emotion faces, being able to predict how an event will make someone feel, being able to predict how an emotion will make someone act
31
Emotional competence is related to?
effective management of stressful situations, development of positive relationships
32
Examples of emotional competence skills
awareness of one's own emotions (identify when sad), detecting others' emotions, awareness that the expression of emotions impacts relationships
33
Early childhood
Children begin to understand that: specific situations are likely to evoke different emotional reactions, facial expressions are indicative of different emotional reactions, emotions affect behavior, emotions can influence others' emotions
34
2-4 years
increase in number of terms for emotion
35
4-5 years
same event can elicit a different emotional reaction in different people (theory of mind)
36
Middle and late childhood
increased understanding of potential to experience more than one emotion, increased awareness of what contributed to an emotional response, ability to suppress/conceal negative emotional reactions, increased ability to effectively self-soothe
37
Ways adults help children exposed to disaster and terrorist attacks
reassure children of safety, allow children to recall events, encourage children to talk about confusing events, try to prevent re-exposure through reminders, help children make sense of the event
38
Incredible Years
goal is to prevent and treat young children's behavior problems and promote their social, emotional, and academic competence
39
This region of the brain is sometimes referred to as the "primitive or reptilian brain"
limbic system
40
Brandon was playing basketball in his driveway. He fell and skinned his knee. He ran into the house crying. When his mother saw him she said "crying isn't going to solve anything." This is an example of:
emotion dismissing
41
Which of the following is not a primary emotion? surprise, fear, pride, sadness
pride
42
The ability to recognize that people do not all have the same emotional reaction to the same situation is closely linked to what other area of development?
theory of mind
43
Temperament
links with personality, adapting to the child- goodness of fit and parenting, 3 different classifications
44
Definition of temperament
individual difference in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
45
Chess and Thomas' classification of temperament
easy child, difficult child, slow-to-warm-up child
46
Easy child
generally positive mood, quickly adjusts to changes in routines, adapts easily (40%)
47
Difficult child
generally reacts negatively and cries frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, slow to accept change, easily upset (10%)
48
Slow-to-warm-up child
low activity level, somewhat negative, low intensity of mood, in the middle, more time with adjustment (15%)
49
Pluess and Belsky 2009
Children with difficult temperament show more problems when experiencing low quality child care and fewer problems when experiencing high quality child care than easy temperament children, differential susceptibility in child temperament
50
Kagan's behavioral inhibition
one broad category: "inhibition to the unfamiliar", extent to which children react negatively to the unfamiliar with initial avoidance, distress, subdued affect; from toddler age to 4 years, good stability. by 7 years, some "inhibited" children moved to intermediate group (between inhibited and uninhibited)
51
Rothbart and Bates' classification of temperament
children vary on 3 different domains: extraversion/surgency, negative affectivity, effortful control; domains emphasize children's positive and negative emotions/level of arousal. action is driven by these tendencies, children with better effortful control may be more flexible, better able to handle stressful situations
52
Temperament and personality
Early temperament linked with adult personality, easy to soothe children (3-5 years) likely to be well-adjusted adults, highly inhibited children less likely to be assertive or experience social support as adults, heredity and experience shape temperament and personality
53
Goodness of fit and parenting
fit between child temperament and environment (often caregiving), parents of children with inhibited/difficult/negative affect like temperaments may need the most support, parent realizes child has lots of needs and needs to be soothed or explained to, not a one-way street
54
Transition to parenting
timing of parenting (planning vs. surprise, many waiting until careers are established), different types of parents (biological, adoptive, stepparents)
55
Marital quality
longitudinal study followed families til baby was 3.5 years, couples had more positive marital relations before baby was born, 1/3 reported increased marital satisfaction, dissatisfaction related to decreased quality time with spouse, perceptions in uneven distribution of household tasks
56
Role of parents across development
managers of opportunities, monitors behavior and academics, make decisions about schools to attend, social arrangers, provide structure and guidance, ensure child gets proper medical care, mothers more likely to take on "managerial" role
57
Parenting in infancy
heavy focus on caregiving: feeding, changing diapers, bathing, soothing, attempts to baby-proof house: anticipate what may be dangerous (locks on cabinets, plugs in outlets), gradual increase in non-caregiving behaviors: play, visual-vocal exchanges, managing the infant's behavior
58
Infant behavior management: discipline and corrective methods
12 months - divert attention, reason with, ignore, negotiate
| 24 months- still use the above, also more likely to "yell in anger"
59
Overall increase in corrective behaviors from 12-24 months. why?
increase in cognitive skills and ability to move around
60
Parenting in early childhood
ROUTINES (bedtime regularities, meals, chores), EMOTION REGULATION (helping children control temper and behavior, managing sibling conflict, learn manners), AUTONOMY (helping children become more independent like getting dressed for school, starts when children are able to move around)
61
Parenting in middle and late childhood
children becoming more autonomous but parents are still important, supporting academic achievement, supporting extracurricular and outside of school activities, monitoring
62
Monitoring
supervising children's choices in social settings, activities, and friends
63
Higher monitoring associated with:
lower drug use (alcohol and marijuana), better academic achievement
64
Behavior management in children: middle and late childhood vs. early childhood/toddler years
less use of physical force in middle and late childhood than early childhood/toddler years, parents are more likely to take away privileges and make statements that increase children's guilt to prevent repetition of unwanted behavior
65
Parenting practices
specific concrete behaviors parents use with socializing children, routines: reading with children before bed every night, setting a bedtime, ensuring children eat breakfast; likely to change across development
66
Parenting styles
stable over time, provide the "emotional climate" for parenting practices, usually defined in terms of parent sensitivity/warmth and expectations for child behavioral control
67
Parenting styles
4 main styles, parents should strive for authoritative, might mix styles
68
Authoritative parenting
teaching/training, nurturing, accepting, using reason rather than force
high sensitivity and warmth, high expectations, demanding
69
Authoritarian parenting
compliance, using force rather than reason, relatively cold, rejecting, strict
low sensitivity and warmth, high expectations, demanding
70
Indulgent parenting
permissive, confidence that child will find his/her own way, high nurturance, not monitoring behavior
high sensitivity and warmth, low expectations, undemanding
71
Neglectful/uninvolved parenting
low monitoring and nurturance, associated with drug abuse and low grades
low sensitivity and warmth, low expectations, undemanding
72
High sensitivity + high expectations
authoritative
73
High sensitivity + low expectations
indulgent
74
Low sensitivity + high expectations
authoritarian
75
Low sensitivity + low expectations
neglecting
76
Abby's mom walks into the living room and sees that it's a mess. She grabs Abby by the hand, pulls her to the living room, and yells "you need to clean this up now." Abby tries to tell her that her younger brother made the mess, but Abby's mom tells her to not talk back. Which parenting style? How to change to authoritative?
authoritarian
grabbing pulling --> ask to come to living room, go to Abby to talk to her
yelling --> calmly state what she needs to do, be polite (say please)
refusing conversation --> be willing to listen
77
Authoritative parenting linked with:
empathy development, positive peer relationships, better academic achievement, reduced problem behaviors like substance use
empathy= take another child's perspective
78
Academic competence in different parenting styles
authoritative parenting linked with best academic competence, next indulgent, then authoritarian, last neglectful
79
Parenting styles in context
authoritative style associated with positive developmental outcomes across different cultures
80
Possible cultural differences in the consequence of using physical punishment
non-latino white children more likely to show externalizing problems (acting out behaviors) than african american children
81
Parenting styles - caveats
does not explicitly address the reciprocal nature of parent/child interaction, parents may use one style but may use one most often, could parenting styles be too broad? are some aspects more important than others for example monitoring more important than warmth?
82
Corporal punishment associated with:
immediate compliance, increased aggression, lower levels of moral internalization, worse mental health
26% of parents report spanking children, 67% of parents report yelling at them regularly
83
Reasons not to use corporal punishment
modeling poor problem solving, can instill fear in children, does not inform the child what s/he should be doing, "slippery slope" towards maltreatment
84
Better methods than corporal punishment
tell them what they should do, not what they should stop, "use walking feet" instead of "don't run"
85
Counterarguments on corporal punishment
matters how the parent delivers the punishment (only sometimes spanking, using light spanking), may matter what the cultural norm is
86
Co-parenting
parents may be more prone to use different styles, important to coordinate: expectations, consequences, make difficult decisions together, doing otherwise may undermine one parent especially in divorce families
87
Child maltreatment includes:
physical abuse, child neglect (occurs 3x more often as abuse), sexual abuse, emotional abuse, different forms of abuse/neglect often co-occur
88
Maltreatment as a "unique" risk factor
more risk factors a child has, more risk for troubles, very important risk factor
89
Physical abuse
infliction of physical injury through: punching, beating, kicking, biting, burning, shaking, NOT hitting, often the parent did not intend to hurt the child, may be the result of excessive physical punishment, only reportable if it leaves a mark needs to be a certain threshold
90
Neglect
failure to provide for child's basic needs, abandonment, allowing chronic truancy, inattention to emotional needs, not monitoring enough
91
Sexual abuse
fondling of a child's genital, intercourse, incest, rape, sodomy, exhibitionism, commercial exploitation through prostitution or production of pornographic materials
92
Emotional abuse
acts or omissions by caregivers that could cause serious behavioral, cognitive, or emotional problems
93
What leads to child abuse/risk factors
parenting stress, substance abuse, social isolation, single parenting, socioeconomic difficulties (poverty), 1/3 of parents who were abused go on to abuse their own children (intergenerational pattern)
94
Developmental consequences from child abuse
poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor relationships, academic difficulty, delinquency, violence in romantic relationships, sexual risk taking, mental health problems, depression, health problems as adults (diabetes, lung disease, related to stress response systems), impairment across the board, maltreatment is a huge risk factor, child learns caregiver is someone dangerous, impacts how the child sees the world, child thinks they deserve abuse
95
Each night before going to bed, John puts on his pajamas, brushes his teeth, and then his mom reads him a book. This is an example of:
parenting practice
96
True or false: an authoritative parent is more likely to use emotion coaching than emotion dismissing
True
97
Susan is an infant who shows a high level of negative affect. She is easily distressed and cries frequently. Her father tries to introduce Susan to new tasks slowly and understands that she will need more time to adjust to changes in routine than other infants. The complementary relationship between Susan's temperament and her father's parenting is an example of?
Goodness of fit
98
Based on what you know about the importance of monitoring in adolescence, which parenting style is likely most associated with adolescent drug use?
Indulgent or neglect
99
Attachment
a close emotional bond between two individuals in a long-term relationship
100
Biological
processes of the physical body
101
Socioemotional
emotion, personality, relationships
102
Cognitive
thought, intelligence, and language
103
Stages of attachment
Phase 1: 0-2 months, instinctive orientation to any human
Phase 2: 2-7 months, start to distinguish primary caregivers from strangers
Phase 3: 7-24 months, specific attachments develop
Phase 4: 24 months plus, understanding of goals and intentions of others develops
104
Harlow's monkeys
rhesus monkeys raised by "surrogate mothers" (wire and cloth), food vs. security, security wins, runs over to get food from wire mother but always clings to cloth mother, especially when scared
105
Strange situation
measure of attachment security developed by Mary Ainsworth, series of separations from and reunions with caregiver, recorded and coded, how does the child react upon reunion? 4 major patterns: secure, insecure avoid ant, insecure resistant, disorganized
106
Secure attachment
caregiver as "secure base" to explore new space, comforted by caregiver only, results from consistent, sensitive caregivers
107
Insecure avoidant attachment
largely ignore caregiver upon leaving and reunion, results from negligent caregivers
108
Insecure resistant attachment
upset at separation, not comforted by caregiver, results from inconsistent caregivers
109
Disorganized attachment
don't know whether to approach or to avoid, results from abusive caregivers
110
Validity of strange situation
internal validity: caregiver can "fake it," but child won't
predictive validity: consistent over time
security early = more effective peer relationships in school
insecurity early = greater hostility toward romantic partner at 20-21
111
Self-understanding
child forms cognitive representation of the self; substance and content of self conceptions; becomes more complex across development
112
Self-understanding in young child
"I'm tall." "I like to play soccer."
113
Self-understanding in adolescent
"I'm caring but sometimes unkind."
114
Self-understanding in infants
visual self-recognition (around 3 months), recognize self in mirror and respond positively, rouge test: child touches mirror vs. own nose
115
Self-understanding in early childhood
self focused language: "me do it" "me big" (2-3 years)
confusion of self, mind, body: self is part of the body, can be described physically (size, shape, color)
concrete descriptions: "I'm tall." "I know by ABC's"
physical descriptions to distinguish self from others "I'm taller than Joe"
active descriptions: describing self in terms of activities
116
Self-evaluations in early childhood
younger children prone to unrealistic positive overestimations of personal attributes, difficult to separate ideal and actual self, not engaging in much social comparison, some children still prone to negative self attributions (related to high levels of parenting stress, depressive systems)
117
Self-understanding in middle and late childhood
psychological characteristics and traits: describe themselves as "popular, nice, helpful"
social descriptions: descriptions of self include references to social groups (e.g. girl scout, catholic)
social comparison: children think about who they are and what they can do in comparison to others
real self and ideal self, better able to distinguish
self evaluations are more realistic
118
Self-understanding in adolescence
abstract and idealistic: "I'm human. I don't know who I am." "I'm caring and good looking"
self-consciousness: related to adolescent egocentrism
social comparison
contradictions within the self: "I'm insensitive and understanding"
fluctuating self: self-understanding fluctuates across time and contexts
possible self: what the adolescent may become, wants to become, is afraid of becoming
self-integration: constructing a "general theory of self"
119
When Sam is asked about himself, he says that he is taller than Maria but not as tall as Brad. He also states liking football and playing hames with neighborhood kids. Based on his description of himself, it is most likely that Sam is in:
early childhood
120
When Robert is asked about himself, he describes that he goes back and forth between wanting to become a scientist or a doctor. He's smart but not all that smart at times. He really likes biology but thinks that other students are better at it than him. Robert is excited about his future but he's also worried that he won't achieve his goals. It is most likely that Robert is in:
Adolescence (self consciousness, contradictions within self, possible self, social comparison)
121
Social cognition
processes involved in understanding the world around us, especially in regards to how we think and reason about other people
122
Understanding others in early childhood
describing self and others with psychological traits, understanding that others may be untrue, begin to understand others' internal states, perspective taking, understanding how another child might feel in a situation
123
Understanding others in adolescence
increases in perspective taking: girls more likely to engage in social perspective taking, more likely to take on friends' distress as own
younger adolescents more naïve to social perspective taking involving vulnerable and less vulnerable social groups (racism, sexism) than older adolescents
increased perception of others' traits: understand that others may overestimate abilities and that others have "public and private" faces
124
Social cognitive monitoring in adolescence
more extensively able to monitor their own worlds, example "I would like to know more about Tim, but he is not very open"
125
Perspective taking has been linked with more prosocial behavior (voluntary behavior to benefit others) and better emotion regulation in children. What are some explanations that may explain these findings?
prosocial- better understand how children may feel in a specific scenario, how their own actions may help or hinder
emotion regulation- better able to understand others intent
126
Hostile attribution bias
tendency to attribute negative attention to neutral actions
127
Self-esteem
global evaluative dimension of the self (i.e. self worth)
128
Self-concept
domain-specific self-evaluations
129
Susan Harter's "Self-Perception Profile"
```
assess global self-worth plus concept specific:
physical appearance
scholastic competence
social acceptance
behavioral conduct
athletic competence
close friendship
romantic appeal
job competence
```
130
Global vs. domain specific
global= how you feel as a whole
children show different profiles, some may be high in global and generally high across all specifics, some may be high in global and more scattered in specifics
131
Which specific concept is most related to overall self-worth?
physical appearance
132
Development of self-esteem
develops in context, linked to secure attachment with parents, linked to sensitive caregiving
133
Relational esteem
how we feel about ourselves is in part dependent on our relational context
134
Self-esteem and developmental changes
decrease in self-esteem in adolescence, girls may be particularly susceptible, may be related to body image
135
Low self esteem found to be related to:
low academic achievement, higher depressive systems, eating disorders
136
Studies on self-esteem are largely correlational
what does this mean? can we draw conclusions? why aren't more studies experimental? ethical problem
137
Increasing self-esteem
identifying what domains matter to a child, providing emotional support and social approval, praising achievement- avoiding empty encouragement (e.g. good job) and being specific, encouraging coping- helping children face problems rather than avoid them; builds self-efficacy
138
Identity
who a person is, a synthesized and integrated self-understanding
139
What pieces compose of a person's identity?
gender, personality, beliefs, career, relationships, physical attributes, political, religious
140
Erikson
identity is a key aspect of adolescent development
141
Erikson: Identity vs. Identity confusion
adolescent examine who they are, what they are about, where they are going in life
142
Erikson: psychosocial moratorium
gap between childhood security and adult autonomy: adolescent are able to try on different identities
143
Successful coping
new sense of self
144
Unsuccessful coping
identity confusion
145
Identity confusion
may withdraw or isolate from family and peers, may immense in world of family and peers
146
Identity crisis
a period of identity development during which a person is exploring alternatives
147
Identity commitment
a personal investment in identity
148
James Marcia: identity statuses
defined in terms of commitment and having to explore alternatives
149
Identity achievement
has explored meaningful alternatives and made a commitment
150
Identity moratorium
has explored meaningful alternatives but not yet made a commitment
151
Identity foreclosure
has not explored meaningful alternatives but has made a commitment
152
Identity diffusion
has not explored meaningful alternatives and has not made a commitment
153
13-year-old Mia has neither begun to explore her identity in any meaningful way nor made an identity commitment
identity diffusion
154
18-year-old Oliver's parents want him to be a medical doctor, so he is planning on majoring in pre medicine in college and has not explored other options
identity foreclosure
155
19-year-old Sasha is not quite sure what life paths she wants to follow, but she recently went to the counseling center at her college to find out different career choices
identity moratorium
156
Young adolescents primarily in the identity statuses of?
diffusion, foreclosure or moratorium
157
To move toward achievement in identity decisions:
need to be confident that they have parental support, must have an established sense of industry, must be able to adopt a self-reflective stance toward the future, willing to learn more about their human nature
158
Emerging adulthood
18-25 years, more college seniors "identity achieved" than college freshmen, many still identity foreclosed or identity diffused for religion, developmental timing may be important for each domain
159
Why would college produce key changes in identity?
more and more people going to college, still getting support from parents, identity exploration
160
Identity and family influences
family atmosphere that promotes individuality and connectedness is beneficial for identity development
161
Individuality
self-assertion: have and communicate a point of view
| separateness: use of communication to express how one is different from others
162
Connectedness
mutuality: sensitivity and respect for others views
permeability: openness to others views
163
Relationships and identity
openness to explore identity in adolescence and emerging adulthood linked to quality of friendships, quality of romantic relationships, secure attachment
164
Authenticity
unobstructed operation of one's true self in one's daily expression
165
Ethnic identity
enduring aspect of the self; includes sense of membership in an ethnic group and attitudes and feelings related to that membership
166
Bicultural identity
identification with an ethnic identity and a majority culture
167
Identity development that may differ across cultures
east asian adolescent may not explore identities as frequently, develop identity through identification with and imitation of others in cultural groups
168
Importance of gender
first thing when born: "what is it?"
| gender reveal parties
169
Gender
a set of biological, physical, psychological and behavioral characteristics distinguishing males and females
gender is not biological sex
170
Gender identity
knowledge, understanding, and acceptance of one's own gender
171
Gender roles
set of expectations that prescribe how males and females should think, act and feel
172
Gender typing
acquisition of a traditional masculine or traditional feminine role
173
Gender development- prenatal
parents and other adults refer to gender prenatally, think it will be a girl, ends up being a boy
174
Gender development- toddlerhood
children use gender labels as early as 19 months, girls a bit earlier than boys (17 months), more gender labels= more gender typed play
175
Gender development- preschool
gender stereotyping increases in preschool, very rigid gender categories and rules, mentioned a lot by preschoolers, "no boys allowed"
176
Gender development- middle childhood
7-8 years old--> begin to recognize individual variation in masculinity and femininity, begin to see differences between individuals, not necessarily accept, but recognize, still play primarily with their own gender (teasing if not)
older--> more flexible gender attitudes, more accepting
177
Gender development- adolescence
increase in mixed gender peer groups, asserting own gender and developing sexuality, hyper-gendering
178
Hyper-gendering
overt assertions of own gender, example males acting very masculine and showing off, can lead to behavior problems in school
179
Gender stereotype
general impressions and beliefs about males and females- no data needed
males: independent, aggressive, power oriented
females: expressive, warm, sensitive
true across many cultures
180
Empirical gender differences
supported by data, on average girls display one pattern while males display the other
181
Gender differences: body
body fat: women 2x men (different distribution)
height: men 10% taller (androgen vs. estrogen)
women pack on weight where it would be helpful for child bearing (hips and thighs)
182
Gender differences: brain
more similar than different
males: larger hypothalamus (sexual behavior), larger parietal lobe (visiospatial skills)
females: 10% smaller (but more convolutions/surface area), more energy devoted to emotional expression
183
Gender differences: cognitive
no difference in general intelligence
184
Gender differences: visiospatial skills
boys better, small overall difference
185
Gender differences: verbal skills
girls better, national standardized tests
186
Gender differences: math
no empirical difference in performance in childhood or adolescence, different perceptions of ability
187
Gender differences: performance in school
boys more likely to be in the bottom 50% academically, girls more likely to pay attention, put forth effort, and participate, girls have more positive attitudes about school
188
Gender differences: dropping out of school
boys more likely to drop out - 9% vs. 7% of girls, girls show decreased interest in STEM (science, technology, engineering, math) in high school and college
189
Gender differences: college education
50 years ago: less than 40% of women in college, 1996 to present: women more likely to attend college than men (75% of women and 66% of men)
190
Gender differences: aggression
boys more physically aggressive, girls more relational aggression (about relationships, excluding people, spreading rumors)
191
Gender differences: talk
girls: more rapport talk, conversation and relationship building
boys: more report talk, giving information, storytelling, lecturing
192
Gender differences: play
girls: relationship oriented, smaller groups more turn taking
boys: larger group with leader, winners and losers
193
Gender differences: people vs. things
girls focused on people, boys focused on objects
194
Gender differences: emotion expression and regulation
girls: express more, smile more and cry more, decode better
boys: express more anger, less regulation
195
Gender differences: prosocial behavior
girls engage in more prosocial behavior
196
Gender differences: how different are we?
44 gender difference meta-analyses (pools together multiple studies), no differences in most areas including math ability and communication
boys: more physical aggression, better motor skills, sexuality- more masturbation and casual sex
more alike than different
197
Social influences on gender development: parenting
girls are: given more physical space restrictions, given toys that elicit maturing behavior, complimented on physical appearance, punished using a softer voice
boys are: given more freedom to roam, given toys that elicit more competence behavior (legos), played with more roughly (tossed, tickled), more likely to be physically punished
both genders are: described in gender stereotyped ways (physical appearance and personality) within 24 hours of birth
198
social influences on gender development: baby X
strangers interacted with a baby dressed in gender neutral clothing, 3 conditions: "Johnny" vs. "Jenny" vs. "baby", toys: football, baby doll, teething rung, results: boy toys offered more to "male" infants, female toys offered more to "female" infants, many gender neutral inquiries: participant asked if girl or boy, would act differently depending on answer
199
Social influences on gender development: teachers
differential treatment by teachers
boys: more likely to be criticized, behavior stereotyped as problematic, demand more attention
girls: more compliant, more unsupervised quiet play, less confidence in abilities
200
Social influences on gender development: peers
gender appropriate behavior rewarded while gender inappropriate behavior punished, female transgressions more accepted (tomboy vs. sissy boy) sissy boy is more negative, children spend more time with same sex in early and middle childhood, "gender school"
201
Social role theory (Eagly)
gender differences result from contrasting roles of women and men in society
women= less power, status, resources
roles came first, then characteristics
202
Psychoanalytic theory (Freud)
erotically attracted to opposite sex parent, reject those feelings and identify with same sex parent, no longer accepted
203
Social cognitive theory of gender (Bandura)
observation and imitation, rewards and punishments
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Gender schema theory (Martin and Ruble)
children more actively cognitive, internal motivation to organize the world in terms of gender, gradual development of gender schemas, gender schemas guide organization of incoming info, motivated to conform to gender schemas (gender schemas--> gender typing)
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Biological influences on gender development: hormones
influence both physical and psychological differences
androgens: testosterone and aggressiveness
estrogens: stop growth of long bones at puberty
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Evolutionary psychological theory
differing roles in reproduction drove gender differences
males: having many sexual partners improves likelihood of genes being passed on (multiple babies)
females: obtaining long-term mates improves likelihood of genes being passed on (protection)
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The case of Bruce Reimer
identical twin boy, lost his penis due to botched circumcision in infancy, given hormones and renamed Brenda, bullied and ostracized by peers, truth revealed in adolescence- decided to live as a male, eventually committed suicide
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Prosocial behavior
behavior intended to benefit another individual or a group of individuals
no intention + good outcome is not prosocial behavior
good intention + bad/neutral outcome is prosocial behavior (donating clothes to Zambia)
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Examples of prosocial behavior
offering help, sharing, forgiving, gratitude (showing thankfulness and appreciation in response to a kind or helpful act), cooperation, leadership
intention is to benefit another person
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Altruistic motivation
helping for the sake of helping, because helping another feels good
unselfish
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Public motivation
helping in front of others
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Emotional motivation
helping dependent on distress of other
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Dire motivation
helping dependent on the seriousness of the situation
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Anonymous motivation
helping while others don't know
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Compliant motivation
helping without being asked
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Sharing in infancy
not much overt behavior, roots of empathy
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Sharing in toddlerhood
immature motivators (imitation, fun)
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Sharing in early childhood/preschool
emerging sense of obligation, prosocial behavior is part of a social relationship, prosocial behavior is "right", origins of this shift= growing empathetic awareness, adult encouragement, more generous to themselves, not consistent
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Sharing in elementary school/middle childhood
developing notions of "fairness", 3 principles: equality (everyone is treated the same), merit (extra rewards for hard work), benevolence (special consideration for disadvantaged individuals), increasing influence of peers
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Sharing in adolescence
consideration of motivation (altruistic vs. selfish), consideration of sacrifice
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Gender differences in prosocial behavior
adolescent and adult males show more public prosocial behavior, females show more emotional, compliant, and altruistic prosocial behavior, women have evolutionary behavior to protect the people around them and their children, might benefit from forming relationships with people to get help when she needs, males- bid to attract mates
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Antisocial behavior
behavior that violates social norms a way that is harmful to others or society
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Examples of antisocial behavior
theft, assault, rape, murder, truancy, rule-breaking, vandalism
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Aggression
intentional behavior aimed at physically or psychologically harming or injuring others
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The role of intentionality
an act can be aggressive even if it doesn't succeed (two people get into a fight at the bar, one person throws a beer bottle at the other person's head but misses), an act that causes a lot of harm is not always aggressive (a drunk driver, just intending to have a good time, crashes the car and kills 4 people)
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Hostile aggression
act of aggression intended to inflict pain or injury on another person
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Instrumental aggression
act of aggression intended to hurt someone, but that harm is inflicted in order to obtain a goal other than harm; "a means to and end"
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Physical aggression
attacking someone physically
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Relational aggression
harming someone by manipulating a relationship
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Gender differences in aggression
boys are more physically aggressive than girls, girls are more relationally aggressive than they are physically aggressive
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Children's perceptions of aggression
asked children ages 9-11: what do girls do when they want to be mean? what do boys do when they want to be mean?
results: boys much more physical than girls, girls much more relational than boys, girls slightly more verbal insults than boys but close
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Juvenile deliquency
variety of behaviors that range from socially unacceptable to legally criminal, 2 types: index offenses, status offenses
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Index offenses
acts that are illegal no matter the age of the offender, crime, rape, murder, assault, burglary
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Status offenses
acts that are not illegal, but are inappropriate and not socially acceptable for adolescents, drinking, running away, truancy, sexual promiscuity, deviance
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Controversy surrounding the trial of adolescents
adolescents should be tried as adults or given lighter sentences?
still executive and prefrontal development
can children regulate behavior yet?
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Conduct disorder
age-inappropriate actions and attitudes that violate family expectations, societal norms, or the personal or property rights of others, diagnosed by a psychologist (DSM criteria- diagnostic statistical manual), impulsive, overactive, aggressive, more prevalent in boys, not juvenile delinquency, psychological disorder, juvenile deliquesce and personality keeps occurring
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Piaget (development in stages) development of morality
Heteronomous morality: 4-7 years-justice and rules are unchangeable, beyond control of people, consequentialism, immanent justice-rule breaking has immediate consequences
Autonomous morality: 10 years-rules and laws are created by people, intentions and consequences matter
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Kohlberg
moral development occurs in 3 levels (6 stages), stages occur in a sequence and are age-related, focused on how people justify behavior, not how they themselves act, developed by interviewing children with vignettes (short stories)
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Kohlberg's preconventional level
obedience and punishment, self-interest "what's in it for me?", i'll be nice to others so they'll be nice to me
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Kohlberg's conventional level
internalizing external standards/rules of parents, abiding by authority of social systems (what laws are important)
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Two children walk down the street together and come to an intersection. The walk sign is not yet flashing. One child runs into the street. The other child says "don't do that! my mom said to wait til it says walk otherwise you're breaking the law!" Which of Kohlberg's moral levels is this child demonstrating?
conventional
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Piaget and Kohlberg
peer interactions as the mechanism of change- more important than parent interaction because peers have a bigger influence, peers don't tell the child what to do, more back and forth, need for cooperation, developing of understanding that they work together, peers give instant feedback if you wrong them
moral understanding develops from the give and take of peer relationships, "morality of cooperation"
development course: understand that morals are agreements between people, promote the common good, understand that no "absolute" right or wrong, sometimes consequences don't match the action
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Criticisms of Kohlberg
do reasoning level and behavior coincide? assessing vignettes is very different than being in the actual situation, is moral development really universal? didn't take into account: role of culture, different stages/goals within culture, role of family, role of gender
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Moral behavior: basic processes
reinforcement: more likely to repeat behavior, encouraging something to happen again by providing something positive, negative reinforcement= taking away something thats aversive
punishment
imitation
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Are children moral or immoral?
depends on context, rare to find a child who behaves consistently
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"Raising a Moral Child" - NYT
reinforcement: praise or reward? character vs. behavior specific praise
modeling: following what an adult says or does
guilt vs. shame: whats the difference? guilt is more adaptive, "you're a good person who did a bad thing, i know you can do better"
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Hartshorne and May
thousands of US children tested for consistency of moral behavior, example children completed paper and pencil test, handed out a key to score their own exam, which children were changing their scores?
finding: children inconsistent across situations, might cheat on exam but still be honest with their family, have different motivations, academics might be really important and they want to do really well
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Milgram
originally estimated that 3% would administer the maximum shock, 65% administered the maximum shock, 35% stopped prior
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Milgram: increasing the likelihood of participant disobeying
having seen other adults disobey, having been given instructions over the phone, having to place the victim's hand on the shock plate
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Social cognitive theory
distinction between moral competence (reasoning, thinking through situation) and moral performance (what the person actually does)
if 98% of kids think lying is wrong, why do 98% of kids lie?
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Psychoanalytic theory
super-ego (the conscience) is the moral branch
fears losing parents love, being punished for sexual attraction to opposite sex parent
identifies with same sex parent, internalized their sense of right vs. wrong
conform to societal standards to avoid guilt
Freud= people feel guilt
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Empathy
ability to put oneself in another's place emotionally, having an emotional response that is similar to another's feelings
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How does empathy differ from sympathy?
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sympathy= you feel sorry for someone
empathy= put yourself in someone else's shoes, partially experiencing someone else's feelings, when they feel sad you feel sad, having similar experiences
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A 7 year old girl who cannot swim is going to a birthday party at a pool. The girls friend says "I know you don't like water. We can play in the yard together." Empathy or sympathy?
sympathy
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An 11 month old fought off tears, sucked her thumb, buried her head in her mother's lap in response to seeing a child fall and hurt himself. Empathy or sympathy?
empathy, physical reaction, child shows discomfort, so does 11 month old
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Moral identity
aspects of a personality that relate to moral notions and commitments, violating moral commitments jeopardizes integrity of the self
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Moral character
strong convictions that persistent and overcome obstacles
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Jenny watched the documentary "Food Inc" and is shocked by how animals in the food industry are treated. She is not sure that she has the will-power to give up eating meat but she feels guilty when she does. What "moral identity" stage is Jenny in?
identity moratorium- has explored options but not made a commitment
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Moral virtues
honesty, truthfulness, trustworthiness, care, compassion, thoughtfulness, consideration, brave (moral courage to stand up for themselves)
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Parenting
not appreciated by Piaget and Kohlberg's theories
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Relational quality and secure attachment
related to internalization of parent socializing goals, family values
closer with parent= more likely to show moral behaviors
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Parental discipline: love withdrawal
threatening to take away attention or love from a child or actively stating that you won't talk to the child or won't love them
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Parental discipline: power assertion
spanking, threatening, removing of privileges
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Parental discipline: induction
reasoning, you need to stop arguing with your brother because he was only trying to help you
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John is having a tantrum in the toy store. His mom tells him "stop crying right now, or i am leaving this store without you." Discipline strategy and parenting practice?
discipline strategy: love withdrawal, power assertion
| parenting practice: authoritarian
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John is having a tantrum in the toy store. His mom tells him "i know you want the toy but that one is too expensive. pick one of these toys instead." discipline strategy and parenting practice?
discipline strategy: induction
| parenting practice: authoritative
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John is having a tantrum in the toy store. his mom tells him "if you do not stop crying i will spank you right here and now" discipline strategy and parenting practice?
discipline strategy: power assertion
| parenting practice: authoritarian
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Dad promises Sam to take him to a baseball game on Saturday. when dad gets home, he finds out that mom scheduled a swimming lesson for saturday, now dad and sam cannot go to the baseball game. did dad lie?
younger children think dad lied, older children realize dad didn't have all of the information and didn't lie, children tie lying with punishment, think swearing is lying
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Lying: in-home studies
4-year-olds lie once every two hours, 6-year-olds lie once every hour, 96% of all children lie
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Lying: motivation
most often avoiding punishment, older children- make other children feel better
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White lies
probably not harming anyone to tell this lie and might help someone
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Leakage
child quick comes up with an explanation for something, might not make sense (40-60%)
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Who can identify children's lies most accurately?
teacher- 60%
parent- 50%
police officer- below chance, better off blindly guessing
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Read children one of these stories: the boy who cries wolf, george washington and the cherry tree, which one cut down on lying?
cherry tree, children already know lying leads to punishment, this story helps show that parent won't get mad if they tell the truth (75% in boys and 50% in girls)
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Parenting
"I will not be upset with you if you peeked. it doesn't matter if you did"
"I will not be upset with you if you peeked, and if you tell the truth you'll be really happy with yourself" (more than the first)
"I will not be upset with you if you peeked, and if you tell the truth, i will be really happy" (encourages to tell truth the most, proud of kid if they do the right thing)
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What do you think about encouraging children's "white lies?"
pretend to like an itchy sweater christmas present, preserving other people's needs but still sticking up for yourself
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Do parents put children in positions to lie and test their honestly unnecessarily?
don't put your children in a trap and ask them when you know they will lie, just state what they did wrong
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Teaching moral development in school
the "hidden curriculum," character education- explicit moral code (if you do this, this happens), values clarification- developing own priorities (letting children determine what is important to them), service learning (realize impact children can have on the world)
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Which statement most greatly decreases the likelihood that a child will lie?
"I will not be upset with you if you peeked, and i will be really happy"
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Which of the following is not a criticism of Kohlberg's theory of moral development? does not address the role of culture, does not address the role of family, does not describe moral development outside of childhood, does not address how moral reasoning and behavior coincide
does not describe moral development outside of childhood
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In variations of Milgram's classic study on obedience, which of the following was found: most people were unwilling to subject another to a shock if instructions were given over the phone than in person, more people were willing to protest after having seen another adult refuse to comply with the instructions, more people were willing to give the shock if they had to physically place the victims hand on the shock plate
more people were willing to protest after having seen another adult refuse to comply with the instructions
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Noam Chomsky
humans are biologically prewired to learn language
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Chomsky's language acquisition device (LAD)
a biological endowment enabling children to detect features and rules of language (e.g. phonology, syntax and semantics), not an actual structure in the brain
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Nim Chimsky
raised with humans, partially supported Chomsky's belief
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Evidence of biological influences on language
universal milestones- same sequence no matter what language (spoken or signed)
brain regions- broca's and wernicke's area
animal studies- nim, washoe, and koko
rule use and expansion- wugs and gorping
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Broca's area
involved in speech production and grammatical processing
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Broca's aphasia
difficulty producing words
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Wernicke's area
involved in language comprehension
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Wernicke's aphasia
difficulty comprehending, can produce fluently but speech is incomprehensible
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Individual differences in language acquisition
children's vocabularies vary enormously in size
16 month olds range from 0-160 words
24 month olds range from 50-550 words
30 month olds range from 370-650
these ranges exclude the top and bottom 15%
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Direct input
speaking directly to a child
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Indirect input
language a child hears that is not directed toward that child
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Children learn novel object labels equally well with either type of input
more time with multiple adults= more attention allocated to indirect sources
more attention to speakers= learning via indirect sources
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Behaviorist view on language learning
B.F. skinner, acquiring language through reinforcement
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Critiques
Brown, creation of novel sentences, not much direct reward/correcting
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Parent "strategies" to enhance language acquisition
recasting, expanding, labeling
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Recasting
rephrasing what the child has said
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Expanding
restating in a linguistically sophisticated form
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Labeling
identifying names of object
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Child directed speech
language in a higher pitch and exaggerated intonation (infant directed speech, baby talk, motherese)
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Goldstein, King, and West
mother who responded to babbles --> infants with more complex speech sounds
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Environmental factors: SES Hart and Risley
examine SES related differences in speech to children and children's language development, longitudinal design, followed 42 kids from 9 months to 3 years old, 13 high SES, 23 mid/low SES, 6 welfare, recorded 1 hour of speech to child every month
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Environmental factors: SES Noble, McCandliss and Farah
not only does this SES gradient occur, but it is particularly severe for language, examined differences across SES groups in various neurocognitive abilities: language, spatial cognition, declarative memory, working memory, executive function, reward processing, SES explained over 30% of the variance in language ability, far more than for any other skill
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Why do we see these differences in SES?
different knowledge about child development, lower vocab and grammatical mastery themselves, cultural expectations and preferences, no effective modeling from their own parents, less time to spend with children (more time out of the house, away from children, when at home more distracted and worried about other pressing needs)
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Environmental influences on language: noise pollution
noise pollution in an apartment building over a highway, examined children's auditory discrimination and reading ability, lower floors--> closer to the highway--> more traffic noise--> worse auditory discrimination and reading ability, higher floors--> further from the highway--> less traffic noise--> better auditory discrimination and reading ability
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Environmental influences on language: deprivation
children raised in over populated orphanages: raised in biological families > adopted for at least one year > recently adopted > still orphanages
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Genie
little to no input from birth to discovery at 13 years old, never fully developed language despite intense efforts to rehabilitate and teach her
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Responsivity
treating the child like a conversational partner, show child that their vocalizations communicate something to their partner
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Contingency
responding in an appropriate way, responding to both verbal and non-verbal cues (following eye gaze of infants at 13 months is related to those children's vocabularies at 22 months)
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Amount of speech
more words spoken to children= more child vocabularies, more speed of language processing
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Complexity of speech
more different words and more number of grammatical structures= more child vocabulary acquisition, more grammatical development
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Environmental influences on language: teachers and peers
its not just parents who matter
teachers: teachers vocal, teachers syntactic complexity, classrooms with more teacher-child exchanges, not simply teacher-only talk
peers: peers with advanced language kids= higher expressive language
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Environmental influences on language: school
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classroom activities demand more language use: direct questioning from teacher, reading books, teacher writing on display, learning to write themselves, talking with peers
class cohort effects drive language differences: children within classes more similar than children between classes despite actual age
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Class cohort effects: Ferreira and Morrison
Gavin: 2nd grade, born sept 10 2005, 8 years 6 months
Noah: 2nd, born aug 30 2006, 7 years 7 month
Aiden: 1st grade, born sept 15 2006, 7 years 6 months
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Environmental influence on language: SES
lower teacher/student ratio: less opportunity for talk, lower scores on various language and cognitive measures
teacher/student cultural mismatch
language at home not the same as language at school: school questions= displays of knowledge, home questions= actual inquiries
high SES--> more exposure to knowledge display questioning at home
negative cascade for low SES students: don't understand/feel comfortable answering--> less likely to be called on--> less input
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Environmental influences on language
many examples of resilience, maternal education was particularly important in predicting language input to children (more maternal education--> more input (quality and quantity) to children
maternal education serves as a protective factor for low SES children
