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PS101 > Midterm #2 > Flashcards

Midterm #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What is neuroscience?

A

the study of the brain and the nervous system

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2
Q

What were the 4 methods that human neuroscience relied on several decades ago?

A

examining autopsy tissue, testing the behaviour of patients with damage to certain parts of their brain, recording brain activity through electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp, animal studies

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3
Q

What is neuroimaging?

A

techniques that allow for studying brain activity and structure by obtaining visual images in awake humans

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4
Q

What is an EEG?

A

electrodes attached to scalp, output is brain waves, measures electrical activity in the brain

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5
Q

What is a CT Scan?

A

x-ray type images that may require dye, take lots of images and layer them to create cross section, measures brain structure

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6
Q

What is a MRI?

A

uses magnets and scans, builds 2D or 3D image, very clear image, measures brain structure

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7
Q

What is a PET Scan?

A

small dose of radioactive substance injected that emits positrons, different colours on scan indicate tissues, measures brain function

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8
Q

What is an fMRI?

A

uses magnets, measures activity in the brain based on amount of oxygen in the blood, displays function and structure

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9
Q

What is learning?

A

process by which experience produces a lasting change in behaviour, something you didn’t do before but now did, observable

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10
Q

What is Behaviourism?

A

focus on how organisms learn and the processes by which experience influences behaviour

treated organism as tabula rasa, explained learning in terms of directly observable events

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11
Q

What is Classical Conditioning? What can it also be called?

A

aka Pavlovian or Respondent

learning based on association of 2 stimuli
premise - some things we encounter in the world naturally elicit a response in us

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12
Q

What is an example of Classical Conditioning?

A

ex.
UCS - meat powder
UCR - salivation

after repeated pairings of meat powder with the neutral stimulus of the scientist, the dog eventually began to salivate at the sight of the scientist

CS - scientist
CR - salivation

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13
Q

What are the 4 key components in Classical Conditioning?

A

unconditioned stimulus (UCS), unconditioned response (UCR), conditioned stimulus (CS), conditioned response (CR)

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14
Q

What did Pavlov’s study discover?

A

studied dog’s salivary responses, notice dogs salivate at sounds (ex. footsteps or tone) without prior learning

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15
Q

What are the phases of Classical Conditioning?

A

acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery

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16
Q

Explain the acquisition phase of Classical Conditioning.

A

results from repeated USC-CS pairings

optimal learning occurs when there is a short delay between unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus are presented

(ex. tone presented first but still present while food is presented)

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17
Q

Explain the extinction phase of Classical Conditioning.

A

inhibits responding but does not erase by reducing or removing learned behaviours

CS is presented in absence of UCS, CR weakens

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18
Q

Explain the spontaneous recovery phase of Classical Conditioning.

A

after a rest period and without any new learning trials, the reappearance of previously extinguished CR

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19
Q

What is Generalization?

A

when stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR

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20
Q

What is Discrimination?

A

when the CR occurs after only one stimulus but not another

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21
Q

What is Operant Conditioning? What can it also be called?

A

aka Skinnerian or Instrumental

learning as a result of consequences that follow
emit a behaviour (operate on the environment) and then associate this behaviour with a positive/negative outcome

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22
Q

Explain Thorndike’s Law of Effect.

A

response followed by a satisfying consequence becomes more likely to occur

response followed by an unsatisfying consequence is less likely to occur

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23
Q

What is the difference between a reinforcer and a punisher?

A

reinforcer - increases likelihood of a behaviour

punisher - suppresses behaviour

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24
Q

Describe primary and secondary positive reinforcers.

A

primary - stimuli that has survival value so is intrinsically rewarding (ex. food)
secondary - neutral stimulus that becomes rewarding when associated with primary reinforcer

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25
Q

Describe reinforcement and punishment from both a positive and negative approach.

A

positive reinforcement - adding to environment, increasing behaviour (ex. candy, smile)

negative reinforcement - removing from environment, increasing behaviour (ex. buzzer, pain)

positive punishment - adding to environment, decreasing behaviour (ex. slap, shout)

negative punishment - removing from environment, decreasing behaviour (ex. time out)

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26
Q

What is Chaining?

A

reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response, develops a sequence of behaviours

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27
Q

What variables increase effectiveness of training?

A

frequency

  • continuous: every response of a particular type are reinforced
  • partial: only some responses reinforced

interval/timing

  • ratio: certain % of responses reinforced
  • interval: certain amounts of time must elapse between reinforcement
  • fixed: reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of responses or fixed time interval
  • variable: reinforcement occurs after an average number of responses or passage of time
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28
Q

What are some applications of operant training?

A

specialized animal training, education/workplace, token economies

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29
Q

What is Social Learning?

A

learning through observation of others

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30
Q

How does conditioning affect arousal?

A

anything can be conditioned to have meaning and stimulate arousal

classically conditioned associations result in fetishes

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31
Q

What is consciousness?

A

moment to moment awareness of ourselves and the environment

subjective, private, ever-changing, self-reflective

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32
Q

Who performed the first investigations on consciousness?

A

Wundt and Titchener

difficult topic because of it’s subjectiveness

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33
Q

What is the unconscious? As described by Freud?

A

the state in which information is not easily accesible to conscious awareness

the repression of bad things out of conscious awareness

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34
Q

What is the preconscious?

A

things that can be brought back into the conscious mind

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35
Q

What is non-conscious?

A

the state of not being conscious

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36
Q

Explain Circadian Rhythms.

A

regulated by the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) which link to pineal gland to secrete melatonin

neurons in SCN = active during day to inhibit melatonin secretion

neurons in SCN = inactive during night to allow melatonin secretion

regulate our sleep/wake cycles
determine if we are morning or night people

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37
Q

What are the 4 types of brain waves?

A

alpha - relaxed/drowsy
beta - active/alert
theta - light sleep
delta - deep sleep

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38
Q

Describe the 4 stages of sleep (NREM).

A

Stage 1

  • theta waves
  • light sleep, may experience body jerks
  • lasts only a few minutes

Stage 2

  • sleep deepens; harder to awaken, muscles relax
  • sleep spindles (1-2 second bursts of rapid brain activity)

Stage 3

  • sleep deepens; harder to awaken
  • regular appearance of delta waves

Stage 4

  • sleep deepens; harder to awaken
  • delta waves dominate
  • begins to go back up through other stages including REM
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39
Q

Describe REM sleep.

A

rapid eye movement

high arousal; heart rate increases, brain wave activity increases, erections/lubrication, irregular and rapid breathing

frequent and interesting dreams

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40
Q

What is REM sleep paralysis?

A

when it is difficult for the muscles to contract

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41
Q

What in the environment affects sleep?

A

changes in season, shift work, noise, stress

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42
Q

What is the correlation between sleep and age?

A

as you age you sleep less

more time spent in REM sleep in infancy

time in slow-wave sleep - stage 3,4 - declines

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43
Q

What are some things that affect individual differences in sleep time?

A

genetics, environmental factors (ex. lifestyle, time of day)

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44
Q

What are the effects of sleep deprivation?

A

irritable mood, decrease in cognitive and physical performance, takes several nights to recover

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45
Q

What is insomnia?

A

can’t get to sleep, wake too easily

commonly caused by life stressors/anxiety

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46
Q

What is sleep apnea?

A

a stoppage in breathing that deprives the brain of oxygen and causes the sleeper to awaken

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47
Q

What is narcolepsy?

A

suddenly falling asleep, often at exciting high-stress times, often into REM sleep

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48
Q

What do we dream about?

A

what we focus on while we are awake- fears, wishes, plans

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49
Q

What is lucid dreaming?

A

“editing the script”

when someone is aware they are dreaming and are often able to change their dreams

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50
Q

Describe Freud’s dream theory.

A

dreams are the gratification of unconscious wishes/needs, driven by aggressive/sexual urges

manifest content - surface story of the dream

latent content - disguised psychological meaning of the dream

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51
Q

What is hypnosis?

A

a state of heightened suggestibility

hypnotic induction = process of leading a person into hypnosis

people under hypnosis have no unique power to behave against their will

52
Q

What are agonists and antagonists?

A

agonists - increase neurotransmitter activity

antagonists - decrease neurotransmitter activity

53
Q

What is tolerance?

A

a decrease in responsiveness to the drug

need larger doses
homeostasis?

54
Q

What are compensatory responses?

A

physiological responses opposite to those of the drug, bodily imbalances cause brain to readjust

55
Q

What is withdrawl?

A

compensatory responses after drug use is discontinued

see text

56
Q

What are the 4 main categories of drugs?

A

depressants, stimulants, opioids, hallucinogens

57
Q

Describe depressants.

A

decrease nervous system activity

moderate doses - reduce anxiety, euphoria

high doses - slow vital life processes

ex. alcohol
- increase activity of GABA (anxiety reduction)
- decrease activity of glutamate (major excitatory NT)

58
Q

Describe stimulants.

A

increase neural activity, arouse nervous system
increase blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, alertness

big high, big low

ex. caffeine
- blocks adenosine (indicates when sleepy)

ex. cocaine
- blocks reuptake valves for dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine

59
Q

Describe opioids.

A

binds to receptors activated by endorphins for pain relief and mood changes including euphoria

ex. morphine, codeine, heroin

highly addicative

60
Q

Describe hallucinogens.

A

distort/intensify sensory experience, blurs fantasy-reality boundary

psychedelic drugs

61
Q

What is meditation?

A

turn one’s consciousness away from outer world and towards one’s inner self and awareness

brain activity similar to early sleep, promotes relaxation

62
Q

What is mindfulness?

A

relaxed, thinking about thoughts and feelings but detached, with no judgements

63
Q

What is convergent evolution?

A

development of similar physical characteristics/behaviours in different species that do not share a common ancestor, due to exposure to similar environmental conditions

64
Q

What is fitness?

A

the ability of an individual to successfully grow to maturity and have offspring that perpetuate the existence of the species it belongs to

65
Q

What is implicit memory?

A

on display in skills, such as reading, driving

revealed indirectly by performance

66
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

pieces of knowledge we are fully aware of

conscious, intentional recovery of a memory

67
Q

What is the adaptive theory of sleep?

A

organisms sleep for the purpose of self preservation, to keep away from predators that are active at night

68
Q

What is the restorative theory of sleep?

A

we sleep to allow the brain and body to replenish certain chemical resources and eliminate certain chemical wastes

69
Q

How often do we go through a full sleep cycle?

A

every 90-100 minutes

70
Q

What is the hypnagogic state and when do we go through it?

A

a pre-sleep period characterized by vivd sensory phenomena, happens in stage 1 sleep

ex. falling hallucination

71
Q

Describe the information-processing theory.

A

dreams are the mind’s attempt to sort and organize the day’s experiences and fix them into the memory

72
Q

Describe the activation-synthesis theory.

A

dreams result from the brain’s attempts to synthesize/organize random internally generated signals and give them meaning

73
Q

What is dissociation?

A

consciousness splits into two parts that both act at once during hypnosis, one part is fully responsive to hypnotist’s suggestions, one part is the “hidden observer” processing information that is seemingly unavailable to hypnotized person

74
Q

What is addiction?

A

psychological or physical compulsion to take a drug resulting from regular ingestion, resulting in changes to behaviour patterns and physical responses

75
Q

What is the reward learning pathway?

A

activated by pleasurable stimuli, comes to anticipate rewards

76
Q

What is reward-deficiency syndrome?

A

theory that people might abuse drugs because their reward system is not being stimulated in regular life

77
Q

What is the difference between associative and non-associative learning?

A

associative - learning through forming associations between stimuli

non-associative - learning that does not involve forming associations between stimuli

78
Q

What is habituation?

A

non-associative learning, repeated presentation of a stimulus leads to a reduction in response

79
Q

What is sensitization?

A

non-associative learning, strong stimulus results in exaggerated response to the subsequent presentation of a weaker stimulus

ex. home alone, accidentally knock over a lamp and scream in fear, afterwards jump at cell phone ringing

80
Q

What are the 2 types of associative learning?

A

classical, operant

81
Q

What is higher order conditioning?

A

previously conditioned stimulus functions as an unconditioned stimulus for further conditioning

ex. bell on the door becomes paired to arrival of scientist, dog salivates at sound of bell, despite not pairing the bell to the meat powder

82
Q

What is conditioned taste aversion?

A

classical conditioning, previously neutral stimulus (smell/taste) elicits negative reaction after paired with illness (nausea)

83
Q

What are primary and secondary punishers?

A

primary - stimulus that is naturally aversive to an organism

secondary - stimulus that becomes aversive when associated with primary punisher

84
Q

What is shaping?

A

introducing new behaviour by reinforcing close approximations of desired behaviours

85
Q

What is vicarious learning?

A

learning that occurs when an individual observes the consequences to another’s actions then chooses to duplicate or refrain from behaviour

ex. Bobo doll

86
Q

What are mirror neurons?

A

neurons fired when an animal/human performs an action or when they see another animal/human perform the same action

ex. monkey’s mirror neurons fired when the monkey reached for a banana, but also when watching another monkey reach for the banana

87
Q

What is implicit learning?

A

acquisition of information without awareness

88
Q

What is latent learning?

A

learning that is not expressed until there is a reward or incentive

89
Q

What is attention?

A

getting information into the system

we only capture what we attend to

90
Q

What are neurons?

A

specialized nerve cells that carry messages throughout nervous system, differ in shape/size/function

91
Q

What are the 3 types of neurons?

A
  • afferent/sensory: respond to sensory information from the body
  • efferent/motor: send information to the body to stimulate muscles/glands
  • interneurons: communicate between neurons
92
Q

What are the 5 parts of a neuron?

A

cell body - receives information from dendrites and carries out metabolic functions, passes to axon if enough stimulus

dendrites: extend from cell body like branches, receive information from other neurons
axon: carries information away from cell body

axon terminal: end of axon, where neurotransmitters are released

myelin sheath: made of glial cels, insulates/covers segments of axon to speed neural impulses

93
Q

What are the 5 types of glial cells?

A

astroglia: blood-brain barrier, absorb chemicals released by other neurons, provide growth promoting molecules
oliodendroglia: provide myelin sheath to CNS

Schwann cells: provide myelin sheath to PNS

ependymal cells: line walls of ventricles around brain and spinal cord, fill with cerebrospinal fluid

microglia: clean up debris of dead/degenerating neurons to maintain brain function

94
Q

What is resting potential?

A

electrical charge of a neuron at rest, negatively charged inside vs outside

95
Q

What is action potential?

A

sudden reversal of resting potential, stimulus reaches threshold, fires down axon

96
Q

What is depolarization? Hyper-polarization?

A

depolarization - inside becomes less negative than outside, increases chance of firing

hyper-polerization - inside of neurons become increasingly more negative than outside, decreased chance of firing

97
Q

What is the All-or-None Law?

A

action potential either fires or does not

98
Q

What is a synapse?

A

gaps between dendrites of one neuron and axon terminal of another

site of chemical communication, when action potential reaches pre-synaptic axon terminal, neurotransmitters released into synapse, bind to receptors on dendrites of post-synaptic neuron

99
Q

What are neurotransmitters?

A

specialized chemicals that travel across synapse to allow neuron communication

100
Q

What happens if the neurotransmitters are not taken by receptors?

A

reuptake - travelling back through synpatic cleft

enzymatic degradation - enzymes clean them up

101
Q

What is dopamine?

A

mood regulation, movement, reward mechanisms

102
Q

What is norepinephrine?

A

fight or flight, eating habits, alertness

103
Q

What is serotonin?

A

sleep regulation, mood, aggression

104
Q

What is GABA?

A

sleep, arousal reduction

105
Q

What are endorphins?

A

replaces pain with pleasure

106
Q

What is glutamate?

A

learning and memory

107
Q

What is neuroplasticity? What are the old and new views on this?

A

the ability of the brain to reorganize and compensate for damage, change in function and structure

old view - all neurons in place prenatally, “once damage is done it’s over”

new view: neurogenesis for repair and replacement

108
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system?

A

involuntary processes

sympathetic - arouses in response to threat (use energy)
parasympathetic - calms body during relaxation (conserves energy)

109
Q

What is the somatic nervous system?

A

voluntary processes

110
Q

What are the 3 sections of the brain? What parts do they contain?

A

Forebrain - thalmus, hypothalmus, pituitary gland, limbic system, basal ganglia, cerebreal cortex

Midbrain - reticular formation, substantia nigra

Hindbrain - medulla, cerebellum, pons

111
Q

What is the thalmus?

A

relay system for sensory information except smell

112
Q

What is the hypothalmus?

A

basic biological needs - 4 F’s

113
Q

What is the pituitary gland?

A

hormones for growth/reproduction

114
Q

What is the limbic system?

A

hippocampus - memory

amygdala - emotions/fear

115
Q

What is the basal ganglia?

A

reward system

116
Q

What is the cerebral cortex?

A

outer covering of cerebral hemispheres, complex mental processes (language, thought)

117
Q

What is the reticular formation?

A

neural network between hindbrain-midbrain, regulates sleep/wake and arousal

118
Q

What is substantia nigra?

A

connects forebrain-midbrain, controls eye movements and movement fluidity

Parkinsons!!

119
Q

What is the medulla?

A

bodily functions (heartbeat) and reflexes (coughing)

120
Q

What is the cerebellum?

A

motor coordination and balance

121
Q

What is the pons?

A

facial movement

locus coerulus - neurons with long axons through brain/spinal cord, uses norepinephrine to regulate attention/arousal

122
Q

What is the Cerebrum?

A

left/right hemispheres
4 lobes each
mirror images of each other

123
Q

What is the Corpus Collosum?

A

bundles of axons that connect 2 hemispheres

124
Q

What are the 4 lobes of the brain?

A

frontal - planning, movement, speech production
Broca’s area: speech production

parietal - somatosensory system - sense of touch and position in space

occipital - visual information processing

temporal - processing sound, speech comprehension
Wernicke’s area: speech comprehension

125
Q

Explain brain lateralization?

A

left - math, logistics, language, sequencing

right - visual, spatial, hearing language, creativity

126
Q

How are brain signals processed?

A

many primary functions connected to the opposite side of the brain (ex. thing happening on the left processed in right hemisphere)

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