Midterm 2 Flashcards
(253 cards)
1
Q
What is learning (2 pionts)
A
a process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience
-allows us adapt to environment
2
Q
what are the two processes of change in our development
A
-maturation and learning
3
Q
what are the three types of learning
A
- classical conditioning
- operant conditioning
- cognitive learning
4
Q
what is classical conditioning
A
associating stimuli with each other
one of two types of associative learning
5
Q
Operant Conditioning
A
Associating responses with consequences
one of two types of associative learning
6
Q
Cognitive Learning
A
Learning through observation and information
7
Q
How Classical conditioning works:
A
after repeated exposure to stimuli with each other
8
Q
The results of classical conditioning
A
Our natural response to one stimulus is now triggered by the new, predictive stimulus
9
Q
Example of classical condition
A
see lightning (stimulus 1), hear thunder (stimulus 2)l; after repetition, we learn to cover our ears to lightning to avoid sound of thunder
10
Q
How it works: (operant Conditioning)
A
we learn to associate our response (behaviour) with consequences
11
Q
Results (oparant)
A
We learn to repeat behaviours that were followed by good results to avoid behaviour that were followed by bad results
12
Q
Example (oparant)
A
a child learns to say ‘please’ (response) in order to get a cookie (good consequences) and learns to avoid grabbing the cookie because this is led to scolding and no cookie (had consequence )
13
Q
Cognitive learning (how it works) (2 points)
A
- by observing events and the behaviour of others
- by using language to acquire information about events experienced by others
14
Q
Pavlov’s Discovery
A
- (basic of classical conditioning)
- while studying digestion in dogs. Ivan Pavlov found that salivation was eventually triggered by neutral stimuli that predicted that arrivial of food such as,
- -> just seeing the food or dish
- -> seeing the person who brought the food
- ->just hearing that person’s footsteps
15
Q
(before conditioning ) Neutral stimulus
A
a stimulus whihc doesnt tigger a response
16
Q
Before conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus
A
a stimulus which triggers a response naturally, before/without any conditioning
17
Q
During Conditioning
neutral Stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
A
repeatedly presented with the food (unconditioned stimulus)
18
Q
Acquisition
A
refers to the initial stage of learning conditioning
- As the CS and US are paired, the strength of the CR grows
- Timing is important - the Cs should appear roughly half a second before the US for learning to occur
19
Q
Extinction
A
refers to the diminishing of a conditioned response
-if the US stops appearing after the CS, then the CR decreases
20
Q
After Extinction …. (processes of classical conditioning)
A
spontaneous recovery may occur, or a return of the CR despite no further conditioning
-Very likely to occur following a period of rest
21
Q
Generalization (classical conditioning)
A
refers to the tendency to have conditioned responses triggered by similar or conditioned responses trigger by similar or related stimuli
-Ex: a child who learned to fear white rats is also afraid of white rabbits and santa’s beard (respond to MORE stuff)
22
Q
Dicrimination
A
refers to the learned ability to only respond to a specific stimulus, preventing generalization
Example: a child who learns to fear white rats is only afraid of white rats and not grey or black rats (respond to LESS stuff)
23
Q
Applications of classical conditioning (10)
A
-substance abuse immune response sexual arousal digestion reproduction territory defense learning about good bad foods advertising phobias
24
Q
John B watson and playing with fear experiment (experiment)
A
An example of classical conditioning and phobias
- In 1920, 9-month old little Albert was not afraid of rats
- Watson and Rayner then clanged a steel bar every time a rat was presented to Albert
- Albert acquired a fear of rats, and generalized this fear to other soft and furry things
25
Reinforced (operant conidtioning begins)
behaviour is more likely to be tried again
example: A child punches another child to get a desired toy and it works; this child will likely to be try punching again.
26
Punished
behaviour is less likely to be tired in the future
ex: a child punishes another child to get a desired toy and gets sent to their room; this child is less likely to try punching again
27
Thorndike's Law of Effects
States that behaviours that are followed by favourable concequences become more likely, and behaviours followed by unfavourable consequences become less likely
28
Skinners (expansion on thorndike's principles and questions) (3 questions)
-How can we more carefully measure the effect of consequences on behaviouor?
what else can creatures be taught to do by controlling consequences?
What happens when we change the timing of reinforcement?
29
What did skinner invent
invented 'the skinner box' or "operant chamber", which allowed detailed tracking of rates of behaviour (eg: lever pressing) over time
30
Reinforcement
refers to any feedback form the environment that makes a behaviour more likely to recur
31
Positive Reinforcement
adding something desirable
32
Negative Reinforcement
taking away something unpleasant
33
A cycle of reinforcement: temper tantrums
what happens if the parent gives into a temper tantrum and abides by the child's demands??
The child's tantrum is positively reinforced, so the tantrums will get stronger and more frequent
-The parent's 'giving in' behaviour is negatively reinforced, so the parent will give in sooner and more often
34
What are the two types of negative reinforcement?
Avoidance learning
| escape learning
35
Avoidance Learning
When a response is made in order to remove the possibility that the unpleasant stimulus will occur
36
Shaping
a behaviour by rewarding successive approximations to the behaviour is a way to train a new behaviour
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example of shaping
In one well-known example, students shaped an instructor to stay left by smiling and nodding only when the instructor was to the left
38
Discrimination
refers to the ability to become more and more specific in what situations trigger a response
- shaping can increase discrimination, if reinforcement is only delivered when certain discriminating stimuli are present
(example: pigeons, seals, and manatees can respond to specific shapes, colours and categories of pictures).
39
Generalization (operant conditioning)
occurs when an operant response take place to a new stimulus that is similar to the original stimulus
-example: a dog trained to sit to the command "sit" may also sit when it hears a similar word "fit" or "sip"
40
Extinction (operant)
is the weakening of an operant response that results when reinforcement no longer available
example: a child no longer earns money for doing the dishes, so dish-doing decreases
41
Spontaneous recovery (operant)
occurs when a previously reinforces response return following a period of rest.
42
Reward Devaluation (operant)
occurs when a reinforcer loses some of the values
Ex, a rat pressing a bar for food may press the bar less if it is full rather than hungry
-this can obviously affect the vigour of behaviour
43
Delay of reinforcement
refers to how long after the behaviour occurs is the reinforcement delivered
learning much better if there is little delay
44
Schedules of rienfocement
refers to the rules of how often and when reinforcement is delivered
45
Continuous Reniforcement
the subject is rewarded every time they preform the target behaviour
(the behaviour is learned very quickly, but also stops quickly of reinforcement is no longer delivered
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partial/intermittent reinforcement
the subject is rewarded only some of the time for doing the target behaviour
-->it takes longer to learn the behaviour, but it will persist longer without reward
47
Comparing continuous and partial reinforcement schedules:
- Continous reinforcement: -->Faster learning and faster exteniction
- ->Partial Reinforcement:
- Slower learning and more resistant to extinction
48
What are the two different schedules of partial/intermediate reinforcement
based on interval of time that has gone by or the certain ratio of rewards per number of instances of the desired behaviour
49
the two schedules Interval of time
Fixed interval schedule: rewarded very hour
Variable interval schedule:
reward after changing/random amount of time passes
50
the two schedules rate of time
Fixed ratio schedule: reward every five targeted behaviours
| Variable ratio schedule: rewarding after a randomly chosen instance of the target behaviour
51
Which reinforcement schedule produces the most responding (ie, more target behvaiour)?
-each schedule produces a predictable pattern of responses when number of responses is measured over time
52
Punishment ( operant conditioning)
refers to any feedback from the enviroment that makes a behaviour less likely to recur
(the two types are positive and negative)
53
Positive Punishment
You ADD something unpleasant/aversive (eg. scold the child)
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Negative Punishment
you TAKE AWAY something pleasant/desired (eg: no TV time, no attention)
55
What does severity have to do with punishment
the severity of punishment is not helpful decreasing a behaviour as making the punishments immediate and certain.
- the search for positive opposites - eg: 'dont fight' becomes 'play nicely'
- ->in order to teach a desired behaviour, reinforce what's right more often than punishing what's wrong
56
Overview: (adding stimuli)
-Positive + Reinforcement (you get candy) [uses desirable stimuli] Strengthens target behaviours (you do your chores)
postive + punishment (you get scolded)
[uses unpleasant stimuli] Strengthens target behaviours (you do your chores)
reduces target behaviour (cursing)
57
Overview: (subtract stimuli)
negative-reinforcement (i stop yelling) [uses unpleasant stimuli] Strengthens target behaviours (you do your chores)
Negtaive-punishment (no cell phone) [uses desirable stimuli] Strengthens target behaviours
reduces target behaviour (cursing)
58
Applications of operant conditioning (school)
long before tablet computers, B.F. skinner proposed machines that would reinforce students for the correct resposes, allowing students to improve at different rates and work on different learning goals
59
Applications of operant conditioning (sports )
athletes improve most in shaping approach in which they are reinforced for the performance that comes closer and closer to the target skill
(eg hitting, pitches that are progressively faster)
60
Applications of operant conditioning (work)
some companies make pay a function of performance or company profit rather than seniority; they target more specific behaviours to reinforce,
61
Applications of operant conditioning (Parenting )
reward small improvements toward desired behaviours rather than expecting complete success; reward good behaviours rather than punish bad behaviours
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Applications of operant conditioning (Training animals)
entertainment and to assist disabled people, the police, and the military
63
Basic Idea (CC and OC)
CC- assoicating events/stimuli with each other
| OC-Assoicating chosen behaviours with resulting events
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Response (CC and OC)
CC-Involuntary, automatic reactions such as salivating
| OC- Voluntary actions "operating" on our environment
65
Acquisition (CC and OC)
CC-NS linked to US by repeatedly presenting NS before US
| OC-Behaviour is associated with punishment or reinforcement
66
Extinction (CC and OC)
CC-CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone
| OC-target behaviour decreasing when reinforcement stops
67
Spontaneous Recovery (CC and OC)
CC-Extinguished CR starts again after a rest period (no CS) '
OC-Extinguished response starts again after a rest (no reward)
68
Generalization (CC and OC)
CC-When CR is triggered by the stimuli similar to the CS
| OC-Response behaviour similar to the reinforced behaviour
69
Discrimination (CC and OC)
CC- Distinguishing between a CS and NS not linked to U.S
| OC- Distinguishing what will get reinforced and what will not
70
Classical and operant conidtioning (examples of both)
Amy won jackpot on the slots, bells and whistles were going off all around her in the casino. Now, whenever she sees a slot machine with lots of bells and whistles, she feels a rush of excitement
Joey's chore growing up was dishes. Every night after dinner, Jpey's parents would sit down to watch the news while he was supposed to tend dishes. But every night, Joey was delayed in starting the dishes. He would get scolded and feel bad inside, and this usually happened right after the news began with its jaunty tune. Years later, whenever Joey hears the tune from the news, he feels bad inside
71
Early behaviorists in S-R learning
-implies that it would be possible to train any behaviour, and that all behaviours are equally trainable
72
Evolutionary history point
some realized that each species has an evolutionary history that makes it primed to learn some things faster/easier/better than others
73
with classical conditioning, some associations are learned more easily than others (examples)
- Rats were found to associate illness with a flavour rather than a tone, and to associate a shock with a tone rather than a flavour
- Male quail were found to have a sexual response link to a fake quail more easily than to a red light .
- Humans are more likely to develop phobias for things that have evolutionary significance (snakes, heights) rather than for things that are harmful in present day (guns, cars)
74
Sometimes innate tendencies actually interfere with classical conditioning
-pigeons tendency to peck a light that is associated with food is so strong, they will peck the light even if doing so means that they will not get fed
75
Operational conditioning, some associations are learned more easily than others: (examples)
-while a dog easily learns to detect different scents, it could never learn to put on clothes
A cat can learn to pull a lever to escape a box but it can't learn to yawn to escape a box
76
Sometimes innate tendencies actually interfere with operant conditioning (example)
-The Breland's found that a raccoon couldn't learn to drop coins in a piggy bank for food reward
77
Early behaviorists believed in S-R learning (what does that imply)
- Implies that as long as S and R occurred close together in time and were followed by reinforcement, learning would happen
- no need to discuss, inter, or contemplate mental events
78
What was the other argument to S-R learning?
-some argued that mental events need to be considered
-Called S-O-R (cognitive) learning
'O' = organism's cognitive representation of the world
79
Expectancy model (Rescora And Wagner, 1972)
- CS produces the expectancy that the US will follow
- The imprtant factor in classical conditioning isn't how often the CS-US paring occurs, but rather how 3well the CS predicts the US
80
Cognition in classical conditioning (example)
Group 1 learn more about CS then Group 2, even though both groups had CS -->US 50 times
-group 1: CS -->US 50 times
-group 2: CS -->US 50 times
no CS --> US 50 times
81
Latent Learning (tolman and Honzik, 1930)
-learning that is not immediately expressed in behaviour until reinforcement is available contingent on the behaviour
82
Cognition in operant conditioning
- Cognitive map (Tolman, 1948):
- ->mental representation of spatial layouts
- Suggests the learning provides knowledge and expectation of what leads to what leads to what
- -> after learning simple maze many rats chose 4th (most direct) path
83
Problem solving (kohler, 1925)
- The "eureka" moment
| - sudden perception of useful relationships
84
Observational learning
- refers to learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of a model
- it is highly adaptive
- ->if learning were trial and error on our own we would learn very slowly
- from watching others, we can learn how to do things when to do things etc...
85
What are the processes in observational
-attention, memory, motor reproduction of behaviour, motivation
86
Baudura's (1961, 1963) bobo doll experiment
- showed that children are ready to learn from others
- children who watched an adult act aggressively toward the doll were more likely to behave aggressively than children who did not watch the adult aggressively
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Mirror neurons
- presence of mirror neurons also show that we are wired to learn from others
- -->mirror neurons fire in the sea pattern when we watch other doing or feeling something as if we were doing the action or having the feeling ourselves!
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Implications of our 'readiness'
our 'readiness' to learn from others in our modern time with ample media violence:
-Research shows that viewing media violence leads to increased aggression (fights) and reduced pro social behaviour (such as helping an injured person)
89
The story of H.M
- H.M. was 27 years old in 1953 when he had most of his hippocampus and surrounding brain tissue removed
- operation was successful, but he could no longer form new memories
- he was able to learn and preform new tasks, even with mno memory of the task!
- ex: improves on mirror-trace task over trails
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Memory
processes that allow us to record and retrieve experiences and information
91
The Atkinson-Shiffren Model
- The first model of memory
| - Assumes memory is multistage process in which information flows along three separate and interacting memory stores
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The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model (pathway)
Sensory Organs --> Sensory Memory --> Short-term Memory --> long term memory
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Sensory Organs and between sensory memory (The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model)
Eyes, Ears
| -Tranduction from physical energy (sensation) into neural impulses
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Sensory Memory and between short term memory (The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model)
-limitless, but short-lived
2 options
-forgetting
-Attention: helps select a portion of the sensory memory for further processing
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short term memory and the stuff between to long term memory(The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model)
7+- 2 itmes; last 30 seconds
(double arrow)
forgetting
-information is rehearsed some information is encoded into long term memory
-other way .... later , some information can be retrieved
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long term memory (The Atkinson-Shiffrin Model)
unlimited, but not always accessible
| -forgetting
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Sensory memory (detailed)
-Information picked up by our senses and enter sensory memory
-->briefly holds sensory information
two methods
iconic memory
echoic memory
-Sensory memory is in the initial information processor
-->selects what details to pay attention to
-->Sends this information on the STM for rehearsal and further processing
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Iconic Memory
visual memory is less than 5 seconds
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Echoic Memory
Auditory memory lasts roughly 5 seconds
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Sensory memory (example)
-studied by sperling (1960)
| the letters and the music tones examples
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Relationship between sensory memory and attention
obvious with a phenomenon called change blindness
| --> failure to notice subtle changes in briefly presented stimuli unless attention is directed to those changes
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short term memory
-temporarily holds a limited amount of information
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How is information represented? (short term memory )
Various forms of representations/memory codes
-images (visual), sounds (phonological), meaning (semantic), physical action (motor), etc...
Form of memory code doesn't necessarily correspond to form of original stimulus
-->example: sound-alike errors on memory tests for visually presented stimuli
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whats the capacity of short term memory
- magical number 7, +- 2 (Miller, 1956)
- Can increase short-term memory by Chunking
- ->combining individual items into larger units of meaning
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whats the duration of short term memory
-information is rapidly lost unless we actively do something with it (rehearsal)
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Long term memory ( more detail)
- Library of durable stored memories
| - Storage capacity unlimited, and information can last a lifetime
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What is the distinction between short-term and long term
- seen in 'serial position effect'
- participants are read a list of unrelated words and asked to recall as many as they can
- researchers look at memory as a function of each word`s position in the list
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Serial Position effect
- Find U-shaped pattern as a function of position in list
| - ->superior recall of early (primary effect) and most recent (recency effect) words
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Primacy effect:
information transferred to long-term memory
| -effect diminished if increase rate of presentation
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Recency effect
- information still in short-term memory
| - ->effect diminished if time delay before recall
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-Serial Position effect
| what about the dip in the middle of the curve?
Caused by two different mechanisms
- proactive interference
- Retroactive Interference
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Proactive interference
-First information learned occupies memory resources, leaving fewer resources to remember later, incoming information
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Retroactive interference
-most recently learned overshadows old memories that have not yet made it into LTM
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Working memory model
-Gives us a mental work-space in which we store actively process information
-A model of short term memory that includes multiple memory components:
4 components
phonological loop
visuspatial sketchpad
episodic buffer
central executive
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phonological loop
-auditory storage
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visuspatial sketchpad
-store of mental images and spatial information
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episodic buffer
-combines images and sounds into a coherent, story-like episode
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central executive
in control of the other stores; directs attention and exchanges information among other three stores
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Sub divisions of long term memory
```
-subdivided according to whether we are conscious of the given memory
Declarative
-->semantic
-->Episodic
Non-declarative
-->Procedural
-->Conditioning
```
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Declarative memory (aka explicit memory)
-facts and experiences that we can consciously know and recall
two subtypes:
episodic memories
Semantic memories
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Episodic memories
memories for personal experiences that seem to be organized arounnd 'episodes' and are recalled in the first-person
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Semantic Memories
- memories that contain factual knowledge
| - acquired through effort full processing (studying, rehearsing, thinking etc... )
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Non declarative memory (aka implicit memory)
-include actions or behaviours that we can remember and preform without awareness
-include actions or behaviours that we can remember and perform without awareness
-acquired through automatic processing (no effort made to form a memory)
two subtypes
Procedural memories
Classical Conditioning
124
Procedural Memories
motor memories for patterns of muscle movement
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Classical Conditioning
When a previously neutral stimulus produces a response because it has been paired with a stimulus that produces a response
126
Why is the brain not like a hard drive
- Memories are not isolated files
- ->They're in overlapping neural networks
- The storage capacity does not get full
- ->it gets more elaborately rewired and interconnected
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what did Lashley (1950) show
that rats that had learned a maze retained parts of that memory, when when various small parts of their brain were removed
128
Long-term potentiation (LTP):
-The enduring increase in connectivity and transmission of neural signals between neurons that fire together
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Consolidation
- A process of converting short-term memories into long term memories in the brain.
- -> cellular consolidation = when presynaptic cell is more likely to stimulate a specific postsynaptic cell (or group of cells), due to repeated firing
130
Retrograde Amnesia
The inability to remember what was already known at the onset of amnesia (retrieve memory of the past)
131
Anterograde amnesia
- the inability to form new long-term explicit memories
- implicit memory intact
- -> Could still learn how to get places (automatic processing), and could learn new skills (procedural memory)
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More about H.M
- Anterograde amnesia following removal of hippocampus
- LTM largely intact - could recall events from his past
- could form new implicit memories - learn new skills, although no memory of this
- Problem specific to transferring declarative/explicit memories from STM to LTM
133
Encoding
The process of transforming sensory and perceptual information into memory traces
-More effective encoding into LTM = greater likelihood of retrieval
134
Retrieval
the process of accessing information for LTM and returning it to STM
135
Maintenance Rehearsal
- Rote repetition of information
| - not an optimal method
136
Elaborative rehearsal
-Focuses on information's meaning
-may involve: organizing, understanding, applying to one's life, relating to already learned concepts ,using imagery
Self reference effect
137
Self-reference effect
relating material to ourselves helps encoding and retention
138
Levels of processing
- Depth of processing increases recall
- Horse
- ->Structural
- ->phonemic
- ->semantic
139
Retrieval Cues
_stimuli that lead to activiation of information stored in LTM
-Multiple Cues lead to better retrieval
-->involves deeper processing
-Self generated cues lead to better retrieval
-Retrieval of distinctive events
-->greater chance of etching vivid, clear, long temr me memories
(weddings, romantic encounters, births, deaths)
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Context-dependent memory
- the context of where learning occurred can also become part of the memory and used as a retrieval cue
- We retrieve a memory more easily when in the same context as when we formed the memory.
141
State-dependent memory
-ability to retrieve is better when internal state matches that at encoding
142
Mood-dependent Learning
Tend to recall information or events congruent with current mood
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why are emotional memories more likely to be retained
- emotions trigger an increase in stress hormones
| - stress hormones trigger the amygdala
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What does the amygdala do in emotional times
increased the hippocampus' job of consolidating the memory
| -engages the frontal lobes and basal ganglia to 'tag' the memory as important
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Flashbulb Memories
- Extremely detailed and vivid memories about events and the conditions surrounding how one learned about the event
- Not necessarily accurate!
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The forgetting curve
-Rapid loss of memory at first, then a more gradual decline
147
Mnemonics
a technique intended to improve memory for specific information
- method of loci
- peg word system
- Acronyms
- First-letter technique
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Method of loci
associating each to-be-remembered word with a location along a familiar path
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Peg word System
associating each to-be-remembered word with an existing list that is already memorized along with numbers
150
Acronyms
-OCEAN = Big Five Personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, Neuroticism)
151
First-letter Technique
-Never Eat Shredded Wheat = north south east west
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Dual Coding Theory
- Memory enhanced if use multiple codes
- ->ex. using both a verbal and visual code
- leads to deeper processing
- ->more memory associations with multiple codes
- leads to more retrieval cues that could be used later
153
Schema
organized clusters of memories that constitute one's knowledge about events, objects and ideas
154
Points about schema (4)
are a product of our culture and experience
- helps us understand and organize incoming information
- ->vague laundry paragraph
- involved in all stages of memory
- may cause memory errors, particularly for uninteresting events that do not fit our schemas
- ->examples: little old lady driving a mustang convertible
155
how is Memory is a constructive process
- memories are imagined, selected, changed, and rebuilt
- memories are altered every time we 'recall' (actually, reconstruct) them
- memories are altered again when we reconsolidate the memory
- later information alters earlier memories
156
False Memory
remembering events that did not occur, or incorrectly recalling details of an event
-the more we imagine an event, the more it will see, like a real memory
ex. have you ever discovered that one of your childhood memories wasn't really your own?
it was from a book or movie, or it was from a story that happened to someone else, or it was from a dream, etc...
157
The misinformation effect
Distoration of memory for an event that is caused by misleading post-event information
- loftus and palmer (1974) had partcipants watch a video of a minor car accident
- Participants were then asked "how fast were the cars going when they ____ each other
158
What are the six ways to make eyewitness testimony more reliable during the lineup procedure
-employ double-blind procedures for lineups
-use appropriate instructions
-compose the lineup carefully
-use sequential lineups
require confidence statements
-record the procedures
159
DRM procedure
studying false memories created in a lab
| -doctored childhood photographs
160
how to recover memories of abuse
- abused memories are most likely to be a memory "burned in" than forgotten
- ->also tend to avoid thinking about them , so memory may fade over time
- Accidental reminders can activate a forgotten memory for minor events
- Actively searching for memories can create detailed memories that feel very real
161
how to recover memories of abuse continued
- while true repressed or recovered memories may be rare, unreported memories of abuse are very common
- there is no clear way to tell when someone actually been abused
- an implanted, constructed memory can be just as troubling as a memory from direct experience
162
development
refers to the continuities and changes that occur within the individual between conception and death
-the most dramatic changes occur early in the lifespan, so we will focus there
163
Nature and nurture
-how do our genes and experience guide development over our lifespan?
164
Change and stability
in what ways do we change as we aged, and in what ways do we stay the same?
165
Sensitive Period
how much flexibility do we have in the timing of our exposure to specific environment input in order for specific ability to develop 'normally'?
166
Continuity versus stages
is development a gradual change or are there some leaps to a new way of thinking or behaving
167
How to Measure Infant Behaviour
- can't just ask an infant about how they experience the world
- competence-performance distinction:
- An individual may fail a task not because they lack those abilities, but because they were unable to show those abilities
- ->thus, what we know about infants is only as good as our tools for measuring their abilities
168
Habituation procedure (2 main points)
-used to determine if the infant can be detect the difference between two stimuli
Ex: can an infant hear the difference between a male and female voice
-->present male voice until infant shows boredom in a response you're meaning (this is habituation)
-change the stimulus to a female voice
-if the infant detects the change, then they should show a coinciding change in response at that exact moment (this is dis-habituation)
-another example (can infant distinguish blue from green)
169
Evoked potentials
- used to determine if an infant can detect a stimulus at all
- measure an infant's brain waves through electrodes while you present a stimulus
- ->if the infant can detect the stimulus, then the pattern of brain waves will change
170
High-amplitude sucking method:
- used to determine what stimulus an infant prefers
- infant is given a special pacifier that responds to sucking rate
- if they suck at a certain rate, they get access to a certain stimulus
171
Preference method :
- Used to measure infant's likes and dislikes for visual stimuli
- Infant is placed in a 'looking chamber ' and is shown two stimuli at once
- Researchers can measure where the infant is looking to determine preferences
172
Longitudinal Design
-A developmental research design in which the same individuals are studied repeatedly over some subset of their lifespan
173
What are the advantages and disadvantages of longitudinal designs
```
Advantages:
-Can access developmental change !!!
Disadvantages:
-Very expensive and time consuming
-Selective attrition:
-Loss of Ps such that the sample ends up being different from the population as a whole
-Original research question may become obsolete
-Practice effects
-Cohort Effects
```
174
Cross-sectional Design
-A development research design in which individuals from different age groups are studied at the same point in time
175
What are the advantages and disadvantages of Cross-sectional designs
```
Advantages:
-Less time consuming and expensive
-Can uncover age differences
Disadvantages:
-can't distinguish age effects from cohort effects
can't assess developmental change
```
176
Sequential Design
-a developmental research design in which individuals from different age groups are repeatedly test over some subset of the lifespan
177
What are the advantages and disadvantages of sequential designs
Advantages: -less time consuming and expensive than longitudinal
-can assess development change
Disadvantages: -more expensive and time consuming than cross sectional
-can't generalize to other cohorts
178
Conception
- sperm and egg unite to bring genetic material together and form one organism
- the fertilized cell is called a zygote
179
Germinal Stage
- from conception to implantation
- cell division occurs at an exponential rate
- cells already begin to differentiate into structures and locations
180
Embryonic Stage
-week 2 to 8
-period when most vital organs are formed
--> thus, a period of vulnerability
cell differentiation continues as cells develop into organs and bones
-->heart beating
-->Brain development begins at week 3
-arms, legs , hands, feet, eyes, ears etc... ,
181
Fetal Stage
```
from week 9 to 38 (birth)
-stage of grwoth and refinement in all existing organs
3 Months: smile and frown
6 months: eyes are open and can hear
9 months : rapid increase in weight
-Age of viability
```
182
Age of Viability
by 6 months may be able to survive outside the womb
183
Things that could of wrong in prenatal development (3)
-genetic problems
-->chromosomal abnoralities (Down's syndrome)
-Environmental problems
__>Exposure to tertatogens (any drug, disease, pollution, or other factor that can have detrimental effects on the developing embryo or fetus
-Maternal characteristics
-->overall health and self-care
-age
184
what system operate at birth
-tactile, auditory and chemical perceptual
will orient towards source of significant stimuli
eg: sounds, tactile stimuli, odours
185
Visual system of a new born
- the least developed sense at birth
- prefer patterned stimuli
- prefer mother's face
- some colour vision
- size and shape constancy
186
Learning in the newborn
- Habituation
- can learn to associate two stimuli together if one reliably predicts the other
- can do simple observational learning
- ->imitate adult facial expressions
187
Rooting reflex
touch around cheek and baby will orient toward touch
188
the Moro reflex
-when startled by lack of support to the head, the baby will flail their arms out and in
189
Grasping reflex
when the baby's palm is touched, they squeeze in a very strong grip
190
Brain Development of an baby
-at birth, 25% of adult brain weight
-at 6 months, 50% of adult weight
-cells become larger, neural networks form
Growth rate slows in later childhood
-the brain grows inside out
191
which way does the brain grow
The brain grows inside-out
- at birth, brain-stem and mid-brain most developed
- first areas of the cerebrum to mature
- ->primary sensory cortex
- ->primary motor cortex
- Last areas: associative areas of the cortex
192
Vision Sensory Devleopment
-From 1/40th of the visual acuity of adults at birth to 20/20 vision at 6 months
193
Audition Sensory Development
- Phoneme discrimination exceeds that of an adult
| - disappears by 1 year of age
194
Motor Development
(stage-like sequences)
what factors play a role
-age of acquiring skill varies, sequence does not
195
Cognition
the mental activities that help us function, including:
- problem-solving
- memory
- language
- concepts
- reasoning and decision making
- using self-talk and inner voice
196
Jean Piaget
- Studied errors in cognition made by children in order to understand in what ways they think differently than adults
- identified stages of cognitive development that unfold as children mature
197
What did Piaget Believe
that our understanding of things in our world is modified in two ways
-Assimilation
-Accommodation
Believed in nature and nurture
-->children grow by maturation as well as by learning through interacting/playing with the environment
-that development proceeds in stages
-->Each stage represents a distinct way of thinking
198
Assimilation
new experiences incorporated into what we already know
199
Accommodation
new experiences cause change in what we already know
200
Sensorimotor stage
birth to 2 years
-understand world through sensory experiences and physical interactions with objects
Begin to acquire language
-6 to 8 month develop object permanence
201
Object permanence
understanding that objects continue to exist even when they can no longer be seen
202
Preoperational stage
2 to 7 years
- world is represented symbolically through words and mental images
- symbolic thinking enables pretend play
- but some unique ways of thinking
- -> do not understand conservation
- ->display egocentrism
- ->commit scale errors
203
Concrete operational stage
- 7 to 11 years
- Easily preform basic mental operations involve tangible problems and situations
- now grasp conservation and other concrete transformations
- difficulties with abstract problems
204
Formal Operational stage
11 + years
- can think logically about concrete and abstract problems
- able to form and test hypotheses
205
Assessing Piaget's theory
- stimulated a lot of research and provided a theoretical foundation upon which to build, but ....
- ->development is a continuous process
- ->children show mental abilities and operations at an earlier age than piaget thought
- ->Formal logic is a smaller part of cognition, even for adults,
206
Vygotsky
-Social interaction is important for development
-children learn thinking skills by internalizing language from others and developing inner speech
Development viewed as building on a scaffold of mentoring, language, and cognitive support from parents, siblings, teachers, and others
-ideal level of instruction is the zone of proximal development -child can't quite do alone but can with guidance of teacher/helper
207
Social development (attachment)
- Strong emotional bond between children primary caregivers
- important for survival and development
- attachment process
- ->newborns: indiscriminate attachment
- ->3 months: discriminate attachment
- ->7-8 months: specific attachment
208
What are the two types of anxiety that accompany specific attachment
Stranger anxiety: 6-18 months
-->distress over contact with unfamiliar people
separation anxiety: 1-3 years
-->distress over being separated from primary caregiver
-shows similar pattern across cultures
209
How to determine attachment style of a 1 year old
- use the "strange situation' procedure
- ->lab test of 8 episodes that stimulate caregiver-infant interactions in everyday life
- ->infant's behaviour is recorded to determine the attachment style with their caregiver
210
8 lab episodes breakdown
1-Experimenter introduces parent and infant to playroom and leaves
2 parents sits while baby palys
3. Stanger enters, sits, talks to parent
4. Parent leaves
5. Parent returns and greets baby, stranger leaves
6. parent leaves
7. stanger enters and offers comfort
8 Parent returns, comforts, engages baby with toys
211
define Secure attachment
- most children fall in this category
- infant explores when mother is present and is upset when she leaves
- greets mother warmly upon her return and seeks her comfort
212
what are the 3 insecure attachment types
- anxious/resistant type
- aviodant type
- disorganized type
213
Anxious/resistant type
- infant clings to mother and is less likely to explore the environment
- upset when mother leaves and likely remains upset when she returns
214
Aviodant Type
- infant shows very little distress when mother leaves and seems to ignore her
- may be sociable with or ignore stranger
215
Disorganized Type
- infant seems to both approach and avoid mother
| - may act dazed or freeze
216
what causes the different attachment
- Infant's temperament a minor influence
- parenting behaviour is key factor
- ->sensitive and responsive parenting leads to secure attachment
- ->inconsistent, impatient, or overstimulating care giving leads to insecure attachments
- Training in sensitive responding for parents increases the rates of secure attachment
217
father is a caregiver
- many studies of the impact of parenting focused on mothers
- correlational studies show a strong relationship between paternal involvement in parenting and the child's academic success, health, and overall well-being
218
Deprivation of attachment (behaviours)
- strong capacity for recovery if deprivation is over the first 2 years of life and then child is put in a good home
- Less chance of recovery with longer deprivation period
- ->Difficulty forming attachments
- ->increased anxiety and depression
- ->increased aggression
219
What age does puberty begin
age 11 in girls
| age 13 in boys
220
Primary sex traits
changes in the body that are part of reproduction (e.g., enlargement of the genitals, ability to ejaculate,
the onset of menstruation).
221
Secondary sex traits
changes in the body that are not part of reproduction , such as
the growth of pubic hair, increased breast size in females,
and increased muscle mass in males
222
menarche
— the onset of menstruation —
| typically occurs around age 12.
223
spermarche
their fi rst ejaculation of sperm, at around age 14
224
fact about earlier developers
Nevertheless, early developers of either
gender run a greater risk of drug and alcohol abuse and
unwanted pregnancies
225
why do teens struggle with self-control
frontal lobes
also undergo a wave of synaptic pruning, during which
relatively unused synaptic connections are broken, leaving
a more efficiently functioning brain.
226
Some theorists believed about adolenses
the absence of extreme volatility was an indication of arrested development
227
delay gratifi cation
putting
off immediate temptations in order to focus on longer-term
goals
228
KOHLBERG’S MORAL DEVELOPMENT: three general stages
Preconventional morality
Conventional morality
Postconventional morality
229
Carol Gilligan (1982)
suggested
that females base moral decisions on a standard of caring
for others , rather than the “masculine” emphasis on standards
of justice and fairness that Kohlberg emphasized.
230
social intuitionist model
which argues that
moral judgments are guided by intuitive, emotional reactions.
Generally, we make a decision based on our “gut
reaction” and then afterwards we construct the arguments
that support our judgments
231
Preconventional morality
Characterized by self-interest in seeking reward or avoiding
punishment . Preconventional morality is considered a
very basic and egocentric form of moral reasoning.
“I would not flip the trolley track switch
because I would get in trouble.
232
Conventional morality
Regards social conventions and rules as guides for
appropriate moral behaviour. Directives from parents,
teachers, and the law are used as guidelines for moral
behaviour.
“I would not flip the switch. It is illegal to
kill, and if I willfully intervened I would have
probably violated the law.”
233
Postconventional morality
Considers rules and laws as relative. Right and wrong
are determined by more abstract principles of justice
and rights.
“I would not flip the trolley track switch
because I would get in trouble.
234
what is involved in an identity
a clear sense of what kind
of person you are, what types of people you belong with, and
what roles you should play in society .
235
What are the three main areas of personal growth
relationships, new
| possibilities, and personal strengths
236
menopause
the termination of the
| menstrual cycle and reproductive ability
237
Dementia
Dementia
refers to mild to severe disruption of mental functioning,
memory loss, disorientation, poor judgment, and decision making.
238
Alzheimer’s disease
a degenerative
and terminal condition resulting in severe damage of
the entire brain
239
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
```
Infancy
Preschool/early childhood:
Toddlerhood
Adolescence:
Young adulthood
Adulthood
Aging:
```
240
Infancy
trust versus mistrust: Developing a
| sense of trust and security toward caregivers.
241
Toddlerhood
autonomy versus
shame and doubt: Seeking
independence and gaining
self-suffi ciency.
242
Preschool/early childhood
initiative versus
guilt: Active exploration of the environment and
taking personal initiative.
243
Childhood
industry versus inferiority: Striving
to master tasks and challenges of childhood,
particularly those faced in school. Child begins
pursuing unique interests
244
Adolescence:
identity versus role confusion:
Achieving a sense of self and future
direction.
245
Young adulthood
intimacy versus isolation:
Developing the ability to initiate and maintain
intimate relationships
246
Adulthood
```
generativity versus
stagnation: The focus is on
satisfying personal and family
needs, as well as contributing
to society.
```
247
Aging:
ego integrity versus despair: Coping
with the prospect of death while looking
back on life with a sense of contentment and
integrity for accomplishments
248
The First Horseman—Criticism
Complaining
about what’s wrong in a relationship is okay, but stay
focused on what you want to see change. Once the
complaint shifts from the problem itself to how it’s all
your partner’s fault, criticism is rearing its ugly head.
Watch out for words like “always” and “never.” This fi rst
horseman is often followed by . .
249
The Second Horseman—Defensiveness
“It’s not
my fault! You do x, y, and z too!” When you feel attacked,
it’s natural to want to defend yourself, but it undermines
communication and turns a problem-solving dialogue
into a war. Instead of defending, take responsibility for
your part of the problem, let your partner know you’re listening and you’re open to
what your partner is saying, and
try to find solutions together
rather than just “proving” it’s
not all your fault.
250
The Third Horseman—
| Contempt:
```
“If you were my
husband, I’d poison your coffee!”
“Yeah, well if you were
my wife, I’d drink it!” Although
this is a joke, contempt is basically
relationship poison. Contempt
creeps in when one
partner feels superior to the
other, feels that what upsets the
other is not that big of a deal
and engages in name-calling,
sarcastic retorts, and eye-rolling
during a confl ict. To avoid contempt,
make the choice to focus
on all those things you love and
appreciate about your partner, and try to understand the
concerns from your partner’s perspective, not yours. Just because something seems like “no big deal” to you, it is to them, and they have good reasons for their reactions,perhaps reaching into painful experiences they’ve had in the past. Instead of judging them, practice empathizing,and instead of focusing on how much they have failed,focus on how hard they are trying.
```
251
The Fourth Horseman—Stonewalling
This one
seems straightforward—the stony silence, one-word
answers, going cold and acting like you don’t care. What’s
not straightforward is realizing that what causes stonewalling
is often that the person feels so emotionally
overwhelmed that she or he doesn’t know what to say
or how to respond. But instead of disengaging, it’s better
to be honest, tell your partner that you don’t know what
to say, you’re confused or upset or just feeling a lot of emotions, and you need to take a break. It’s a lot easier to
try again once the emotions have settled down, and it’s a
lot easier for your partner to know that you aren’t shutting
her or him out.
252
generativity
being engaged
in meaningful and productive work, as well as making contributions
to future generations .
253
Socioemotional selectivity theory
describes how older
people have learned to pay more attention to positive
experiences, and set goals that emphasize positive emotions
and meaningful connection
