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Bio 1MO3 > Midterm 2 > Flashcards

Midterm 2 Flashcards

1
Q

Therapsida evolution included which characteristics?

A

Increases metabolic rates
Skeletal modifications (muscular diaphragm for enhanced breathing)
Soft tissue secondary palate (allowed breathing while eating)

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2
Q

Lineage within therapsids (evolved as Mammalia)

A

Cheek teeth with multiple cusps
Mobile muzzle with lips and whiskers
Scroll like bones in nasal passages to warm and moisten air as it’s breathed in
Helped find and grasp food, conserve body heat

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3
Q

Mammalia evolution

A

Small bodies (shrew-sized)
Generally carnivores
Females nursed with milk
Hair or fur (for insulation)

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4
Q

3 major lineages of mammals arose

A

Monotremata (egg laying)
Masupiala (pouch)
Placentalia (placental)

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5
Q

Major adaptive radiation after Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction
Which characteristics?

A 
Primates:
Large brains
Complex behaviour 
Forward facing eyes (binocular vision) allowed for depth perception (useful for moving between branches)
Flat cheek teeth, large canines
Mobile shoulder joints
Opposable thumbs and toes
Nails
Tactile pads 
Mammary glands 
Birth smaller litter
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6
Q
  1. Mobile elbow and ankle joints, long grasping fingers
  2. Low crowned cheek teeth
  3. Non-forward facing vision
A
  1. clinging and climbing slender branches
  2. Feeding on flowers and insects
  3. Poor vision so not visual predators
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7
Q

Unspecialized dentition

A

Feed primarily on fruit

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8
Q

Low sagittal crest

A

Large chewing force

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9
Q

Long tail, strong feet, opposable thumbs

A

Moving well through branches

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10
Q

Prehensile (grasping) tail

A

Help swing from trees

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11
Q

Thickly enamelled cheek teeth

A

Hard fibrous diet

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12
Q

Foremen magnum central

A

Bipedal motion

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13
Q

Foramen magnum at back of skull

A

Fully quadruple

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14
Q

Foramen magnum at slight angle

A

Knuckle walking ape

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15
Q

Long arms and opposable big toe

A

Spent time in trees

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16
Q

Massive jaws
Large cheek teeth
Sagittal crest along top of braincase for attachment of large jaw muscles

A

Tough plant material diet

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17
Q

Reduced cheek teeth

A

Cooking food

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18
Q

Big variation in size

A

Suggesting they were sexually dimorphic

Males and females differing in size

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19
Q

Reduced sexual dimorphism

A

Primarily monogamous

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20
Q

Out-of-Africa hypothesis

A

Homo sapiens originated and evolved into modern form in Africa
Them migrated and interacted with other Hominina species throughout Europe and Asia

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21
Q

Molecular evidence for out-of-Africa hypothesis

A

Genetic diversity greatest in Africa

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22
Q

Bipedalism hypotheses

A

Less exposed surface area for sun damage
Hands free for foraging and carrying tools
Efficient migration

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23
Q

Pelvis modifications

A

Chimps: long and flat
Humans: bowl shaped for balance in upright primates

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24
Q

Femur modifications

A

Chimps: straight
Humans: angled slightly inward allowing us to kick forward for bipedal stride

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25
Q

Feet modifications

A

Chimps: opposable great toe
Humans: heel large, foot arched, toes allowing leverage

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26
Q

Brain size

A

Increases brain size
Can manufacture complex tools
Foraging and hunting more complex
Complex social lives

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27
Q

Tools

Orangutans

A

Poles to trap fish and twigs to obtain honey and termites

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28
Q

Tools

Gorillas

A

Sticks to probe water depth and poles for balance while walking in water

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29
Q

Tools

chimpanzees

A

Strip leaves from twigs to extract termites, collect ants and honey
Use sharpened sticks to extract small prey
Spongelike mats to collect water

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30
Q

Tools

Bonobos

A

Grooming with small sticks

Large leaves for rain cover

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31
Q

Tools

Oldowan

A

Flakes: butchering tools or used to sharpen sticks
Cores: pounding, chopping, scraping hides
Extractive foraging for roots and butchering large prey

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32
Q

Tools

Acheulian

A

Hand axes for butchering prey

Skinning, severing joints, shearing meat from bone

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33
Q

Tools

Mousterian

A

Hunting large game

Full-scale hunting

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34
Q

Weapons and refined tools

A

Knives, chisels, drills, harpoons, spears, bows and arrows

Cooperating and sharing behaviour

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35
Q

Weapons and refined tools

Materials

A

Bone, shell, antler, wood, ivory

For artwork

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36
Q

Controlling fire and cooking

Benefits?

A

Cooking softens fibres and reduces chewing time, increases food metabolized
Killed potential pathogens
Increased number of calories to supply needs of brain
Protect against predators at night

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37
Q

Reduced jaw musculature in Homo

A

Humans have a mutant gene that led to 80% reduction in jaw musculature
MYH16 gene

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38
Q

Brain ossification

A

Primate brain case formed by cranial bones joined by fibrous elastic sutures that ossify (become bony) during development
allows braincase to stretch and deform
Human brain cases grow into early adulthood (delayed ossification)
Brain case must be ossified in apes that develop large jaw muscles, or brain case could be pulled to pieces

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39
Q

Brain size

A

Brains are metabolically expensive

Gorillas don’t have enough time to eat enough food to support a large brain

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40
Q

Reduced jaw

Maladaptive

A

Cooking made producing large musculature unnecessary

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41
Q

Pelvic girdle size restrained

A

Bipedal hominina constrained to deliver babies with small brains
Brain growth can continue after birth

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42
Q

Clothing

A

Premature stop codon in gene responsible for fur in humans
Analyzed lice species to estimate when humans lost fur and began wearing clothes
Head and body lice inferred to share a common ancestor when humans started wearing clothes

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43
Q

Melanin evolution

UV

A

Melanin functions as sunscreen
UV radiation can cause skin cancer (melanin protects)
Chimpanzees and early Hominina are fair

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44
Q

Melanin evolution

Folate

A

Essential vitamin
Deficiencies lead to birth defects
UV radiation causes folate breakdown
Natural selection operates on skin cancer and folic acid requirements favouring individuals with dark skin in regions with high UV

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45
Q

Melanin evolution

Vitamin d

A

Necessary for growth and immune system
Dark skin requires more exposure to sun to obtain vitamin d
Fairer skin favoured in regions with less UV

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46
Q

Malaria resistance

A

HbA is most common type
HbS caused by mutation
Homozygous get a deadly disease
Heterozygous get resistance to malaria
Frequency of HbS highest in regions where malaria is common

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47
Q

Lactase evolution

A

75% of humans cannot properly digest milk after 2 years old
Many mutations in regularly gene that controls lactase
Geographic distribution of pastoralist and lactase persistence overlap closely

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48
Q

Menopause evolution

A

Grandmother hypothesis: menopause evolved due to inclusive fitness benefits gained by older women assisting in rearing grandchildren rather than giving birth and caring for own children
Mothering hypothesis: mother contributes to reproductive success of her children directly by providing extended care
Lifespan artifact hypothesis: evolved due to increased human longevity
Mate-choice hypothesis: evolved due to change in mating behaviour involving only adults

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49
Q

Misconceptions about human evolution

A

Humans evolved from chimps
The human mind is too complex to have evolved
Humans stopped evolving

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50
Q

Ecology

A

Study of factors that determine the distribution and abundance of organisms
Flows of energy in biological systems

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51
Q

Organismal ecology (behavioural/physiological)

A

How an individual organism interacts with its environment

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52
Q

Population ecology

A

How and why does a population change over time
Interactions between individuals (infraspecific)
Interactions with conspecific individuals (same species)

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53
Q

Conspecific

A

Members of same species

54
Q

Infraspecific

A

Interactions within species

55
Q

Heterospecific

A

Member of different species

56
Q

Interspecific

A

Interactions between species

57
Q

Community ecology

A

Nature of interactions between species and their consequences
Interspecific interactions

58
Q

Ecosystem ecology

A

How chemical elements that act as nutrients cycle through an ecosystem

59
Q

Global ecology

A

Studies effects of human impacts on the biosphere

60
Q

Abiotic limiting factors

A 
Light 
Nutrients 
Temperature 
Water 
Salinity 
Disturbances (ex. Wildfires)
61
Q

Liebig’s law of the minimum

A

Organismal distributions are determined by the most limiting factor
If u change something in a system (ex. Change temp) and the system responds (changes), it is the limiting factor

62
Q

Niche

A

Range of environments that allow persistence (growth and reproduction) of a species

63
Q

Top-down factors

A

Regulate rate of loss rather than rate of production
Biotic: ex predators
Abiotic: ex fire

64
Q

Dispersal

A

Movement of an individual from birth place to location where it lives and breeds

65
Q

Biome

A

Region with distinct abiotic factors and vegetation

66
Q

Net primary product

A

Total amount of biomass generated by fixation of carbon per year minus amount oxidized by cellular respiration

67
Q

Aboveground biomass

A

Total mass of living plants exuding roots

68
Q

Arctic tundra

A

Throughout arctic regions of northern hemisphere
Low productivity, low diversity, low aboveground biomass
Soil can be permanently frozen
Ground covered by low plants (no trees)
Low precip
Cold

69
Q

Boreal forest

A

Low productivity
Low diversity due to low temp and low precip
Dominated by conifers
High aboveground biomass

70
Q

Temperate coniferous forest

A

Primarily in coastal areas with mild winter and heavy precipitation
Coniferous trees

71
Q

Temperate forest

A

Productivity and diversity are moderate
Dominated by deciduous trees
Moderate precip

72
Q

Temperate grassland

A

Prairie
Generally low productivity but soils highly fertile
Grass dominated because conditions are too dry for tree growth

73
Q

Subtropical desert

A

Extreme temperatures
Low moisture
Low productivity
Leafless plants (cacti)

74
Q

Tropical wet forest

A 
(Rain forest)
Favourable year round growing conditions
High aboveground biomass 
High diversity 
High productivity 
Diverse evergreen trees
75
Q

Water depth gradient

A

Light availability decrease with depth
Dark, cold, low productivity, nutrient accumulation
Light, warm, high productivity, nutrient depletion

76
Q

Upwelling

A

Nutrients brought up to surface

77
Q

Donor controlled

A

Whale falls, organisms live on dead whales

78
Q

Chemoautotrophic

A

Cold seeps, hydrocarbons seeping out of ocean floor, just chemical energy to convert to energy rich compound

79
Q

Benthic zone

A

Bottom of ocean

80
Q

Photic zone

A

Receive sun to support photosynthesis

81
Q

Aphotic regions

A

Don’t receive sunlight

82
Q

Behaviour

A

Response to a stimulus

83
Q

Phenotypic plasticity

A

Phenotype changing in response to environment

84
Q

Proximate causation

A

Explains how actions occur

85
Q

Ultimate causation

A

Explains why actions occur

Usually based on evolutionary consequences

86
Q

Optimal foraging

A

Hypothesis that animals maximize their feeding efficiency

Longer travel distance = extra costs, more benefits (larger prey, …)

87
Q

Rate maximization

A

Maximize energy gain per unit time

Energy gained / time spent

88
Q

Rate maximization predictions

A

Be choosy when preferred prey are abundant

When preferred prey are rare, eat whatever you can find

89
Q

Searchers

A

S

Hard time finding food, easy time handling it (s>h)

90
Q

Handlers

A

h
Lots of food available
Takes a long time to digest/kill/chas
(h>s)

91
Q

Fixed action patterns

A

Highly inflexible, inherited

Ex. Yawns and sneezes

92
Q

Learning

A

Change in behaviour that results from a specific experience in an individuals life

93
Q

Innate behaviour

A

Require no learning, inherited

Ex. Fixed action patterns

94
Q

Why should receivers believe a signal

A

Frequency dependence: dishonest is rare, cost of believing is low
Dishonesty is difficult or expensive

95
Q

Benefits of sexual selection

A

Males provide females with

Good territories, defence, resource, good genes for offspring

96
Q

Handicap principle

A

Only good males can afford good ornaments

May do signalling because it’s expensive (push ups prove the lizard has lots of energy)

97
Q

Altruism

A

Acting as to lower one’s fitness and enhance someone else’s

98
Q

Self interest

A 
Apparent altruism (helps both you and the group)
Working together (ex. Lions)
Helps of individual costs are low
99
Q

Kin selection

A

Natural selection that acts through benefits to relatives

100
Q

Hamilton’s rule

A

If benefits of altruistic behaviours are high, and of benefits are dispersed to close relatives, and of costs are low, alleles associated with altruism will be favoured by natural selection

Costs are worthwhile if costs to individual is less than value of benefits to kin
C < rB
r is relatedness
B is benefits

101
Q

Eusociality

A

Workers sacrifice their own direct fitness to help rear queens offspring

102
Q

Reciprocal altruism

A

Exchange of fitness benefits separated in time

103
Q

Environment of Evolutionary adaptedness EEA

A

Humans used to be hunter gatherers for so long
Lived in small related interacting groups
Cooperation make evolutionary sense
Closer cooperation with kin

104
Q

Population

A

Group of conspecifics living in same area at the same time

105
Q

Enumeration

A

Typically for stationary organisms

Count every organism in a plot

106
Q

Mark recapture

A

Catch and mark organisms
Let them free
Recapture and count how many are marked

107
Q

Distance sampling

A

Stand in one place and count as many individuals as you can see/hear

108
Q

Species distribution models

A

Abiotic and biotic factors

Usually most abiotic and land cover types

109
Q

First law of ecology

A

Change in population size = birth - death + immigration - emigration

110
Q

Senescence

A

Decreasing fecundity/increasing mortality at old age

111
Q

Survivorship

A

Proportion of offspring that survive to a particular age

112
Q

Negative density dependence

A

Acts against whatever is happening in the population
Ex. Crowding leads to less population growth which leads to less crowding
Keeps population in check

113
Q

Type III

A

High juvenile mortality
But if they survive, have a high probability of survival
Steeper than exponential, then flattens out

114
Q

Type II

A

Constant per capita survival, constant per capita mortality rate
Straight line on log scale
Exponential decline on linear

115
Q

Type I

A

Senescence
Almost no one dies for a while, then crashes down at old age
On a linear scale concave down
On a log scale downward curving function

116
Q

Linear scale

A

Shows absolute change
How many die
Straight line means constant number die per year

117
Q

Log scale

A

Shows proportion change (fraction dying)

Straight line means constant fraction dying per year

118
Q

Fecundity

A

Number of female offspring per female

119
Q

Iteroparity

A

Reproduce many times

120
Q

Semelparity

A

Reproduce once

121
Q

Precocial

A

Mature quickly

122
Q

Altricial

A

Mature slowly

123
Q

r selected

A

High fecundity

Short life span

124
Q

K selected

A

Low fecundity, long life span

125
Q

Exponential growth

A

Density independent
Occurs when r doesn’t change over time
Population size doesn’t limit growth rate
Common in colonization of a new habitat
Constant per capita growth and death rates

126
Q

Per capita rate of increase

A

r

Difference between birth and death per individual

127
Q

Logistic growth

A

Density dependent

Linear decline in per capita growth rate

128
Q

Density independent factors

A

usually abiotic

Varying weather, catastrophe

129
Q

Density dependent factors

A

Change in intensity as a function of population size
Usually biotic
Competition, disease, predation

130
Q

Predator prey cycles

A

Predators kills prey (decrease growth rate)
Prey nourish predators (increase growth rate)
Induce population cycles

131
Q

R

A

R > 1 means an increase in population
R < 1 means a decrease
Always > 0

Bio 1MO3 (3 decks)

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