Midterm 2 Review Questions Flashcards
What is the most important rule for assessing the strength of an analogical argument?
There should be no major, relevant differences between the subject and the analogs.
The more numerous the relevant similarities, the better.
The bigger the margin of error, the better.
The the number of analogs should be numerous.
There should be no major, relevant differences between the subject and the analogs.
What are the two strategies people employ to relieve or lessen cognitive dissonance?
One is to increase the number of inconsistent cognitions (for example, by rationalizing beleifs); the other is to decrease the number of consistent cognitions (for example, by changing your behavior).
One is to decrease the number of inconsistent cognitions (for example, dropping beliefs from your worldview); the other is to increase the number of consistent cognitions (for example, seeking confirming opinions on the internet).
One is to deny any inconsistency; the other is to openly embace it.
One is to change your behavior,; the other is to rationalize away the inconsistency.
One is to decrease the number of inconsistent cognitions (for example, dropping beliefs from your worldview); the other is to increase the number of consistent cognitions (for example, seeking confirming opinions on the internet).
What are the 4 uses of analogy?
to describe; to analyze; to incentivize; and to argue.
To analyze; to argue; for heuristic guidance; and to define.
To describe; to argue; for heuristic guidance; and to define.
To compare; to argue; for heuristic guidance; and to define.
To describe; to argue; for heuristic guidance; and to define.
Identify the 5 factors or criteria for evaluating eyewitness testimony.
How numerous the cases compared; how numerous the relevant similarities; how numerous the relevance differences; how varied the cases in other respects; how large the margin of error.
How consistent the report; how well-positioned the reporter; how credible the reporter; how plausible the report; how corroborated the report.
How large the sample; how random the sample; how well-matched the sample; how large the margin of error.
How large the sample; how varied the sample; how close you were to the sample; the size of the margin of error.
How consistent the report; how well-positioned the reporter; how credible the reporter; how plausible the report; how corroborated the report.
What is the key factor or criterion for assessing the application of a general rule to a new case (i.e., inductive instantiation)?
That the new case be atypical.
That the rule be inductively strong.
That the rule has a reasonable margin of error.
That the new case be typical.
That the new case be typical.
Identify the 5 factors or criteria for assessing analogical arguments.
How consistent the report; how well-positioned the reporter; how credible the reporter; how plausible the report; how corroborated the report.
How numerous the cases compared; how numerous the relevant similarities; how numerous the relevant differences; how varied the cases in other respects; how large the margin of error.
How large the sample; how random the sample; how well matched the sample; how large the margin of error.
How large the sample; how varied the sample; how close you were to the sample; the size of the margin of error.
How numerous the cases compared; how numerous the relevant similarities; how numerous the relevant differences; how varied the cases in other respects; how large the margin of error.
What is the difference between an epistemic authority (i.e, an expert) and a deontic authority?
Deontic authority is authority based upon belief; epistemic authority is based on advantage.
Deontic authority is based on knowledge; epistemic authority is based on power.
Deontic authority is authority based on advantage; epistemic authority is based on belief.
Deontic authority is based on power; epistemic authority is based on knowledge.
Deontic authority is based on power; epistemic authority is based on knowledge.
What is push-polling?
A case which some subgroup in the population is systematically under-represented in the sample.
A case in which people can choose whether to be excluded or included in the sample.
Polling that changes people’s opinion or biases.
A propaganda device in which someone pretends to conduct a poll, but instead asks questions loaded with negative ideas about the target.
A propaganda device in which someone pretends to conduct a poll, but instead asks questions loaded with negative ideas about the target.
What is a ‘time-lapse sample’?
Sampling that lapses after a new sampling is done.
Sampling done at set time intervals.
A sample with a built-in time stamp, past which it is no longer valid.
Sampling done precisely the same way at set time intervals
Sampling done precisely the same way at set time intervals
Identify the 7 factors or criteria for assessing the reliability of memory.
How suggestible the person; how much prompting of the person; how much corroboration.
How recent the event; how consistent; how plausible; how contiuous.
How suggestible the event; how plausible the person; how much corroboration.
How recent the event; how consistent the memory; how suggestible the person; how plausible is the memory; how continuous the memory; how much corroboration; how much prompting of the person.
How recent the event; how consistent the memory; how suggestible the person; how plausible is the memory; how continuous the memory; how much corroboration; how much prompting of the person.
Identify the 4 criteria for judging a generalization.
How consistent the report; how well-positioned the reporter; how credible the reporter; how plausible the report; how corroborated the report.
How numerous the cases compared; how numerous the relevant similarities; how numerous the relevant differences; how varied the cases in other respects; how large the margin of error.
How large the sample; how varied the sample; how close you were to the sample; the size of the margin of error.
How large the sample; how random the sample; how well matched the sample is to the general population; how large the margin of error.
How large the sample; how random the sample; how well matched the sample is to the general population; how large the margin of error.
What are the three elements of the theory of cognitive dissonance?
That people are aware of inconsistent cognitions in themselves and others; awareness of inconsistent cognitions causes a feeling of tension or dissonance; and this feeling is unpleasant.
People are aware of inconsistent cognitions in themselves and others; that this awareness causes an unpleasant feeling called dissonance; and that to relieve this dissonance, people will employ two strategies, one broadly logical, the other broadly illogical.
When faced with the unpleasant feelings of dissonance, people will employ two strategies to relieve the feeling: one strategy is to decrease the number of inconsistent cognitions (as when a person drops beliefs from his/her worldview); the other strategy is to increase the number of consistent cognitions (as when a person uses the internet to find confirming evidence for a dissonant belief).
That people often feel dissonance; this feeling is unpleasant; and people employ two strategies to relieve the feelings.
People are aware of inconsistent cognitions in themselves and others; that this awareness causes an unpleasant feeling called dissonance; and that to relieve this dissonance, people will employ two strategies, one broadly logical, the other broadly illogical.
Identify the 10 factors for evaluating expert testimony.
The person cited should be: identified; qualified; incentivized; speaking in his/her field of expertise; current; quoted accurately; and the more numerous the experts the better.
The person cited should be: identified; qualified; incentivized; speaking in his/her field of expertise; current; quoted accurately; and the more numerous and varied the experts the better.
The person cited should be: identified; qualified; incentivized; speaking in his/her field of expertise; dignified; base his/her testimony on open evidence; base his/her on theories and practices generally accepted in the field; current; quoted accurately; and the more numerous and varied the experts the better.
The person cited should be: identified; qualified; personally credible; speaking in his/her field of expertise; base his/her testimony on open evidence; base his/her on theories and practices generally accepted in the field; current; quoted accurately; and the more numerous and varied the experts the better.
The person cited should be: identified; qualified; personally credible; speaking in his/her field of expertise; base his/her testimony on open evidence; base his/her on theories and practices generally accepted in the field; current; quoted accurately; and the more numerous and varied the experts the better.
Identify the 5 factors or criteria for assessing the reliability of observation.
Options:
A. The better the lighting conditions, the more reliable; the better the memory recall, the more accurate; the more controlled the environment, the more reliable; the more familiar the observer with the topic, the more accurate; the more extensive the observer’s experience, the more reliable.
B. The more consistent the physical conditions, the more accurate; the more experienced the observer, the more reliable; the clearer the surroundings, the more accurate; the more comprehensive the observer’s understanding, the more reliable; the better the observation tools, the more accurate.
C. The better the physical conditions, the more accurate; the better the sensory acuity of the observer, the more accurate; the more normal the perceptual situation, the more adequate the cultural and educational background, the more reliable, the more adequate the vocabulary, the more reliable.
D. The clearer the environmental factors, the more reliable; the stronger the observer’s attention, the more accurate; the more precise the observation method, the more reliable; the better the observer’s observational skills, the more accurate; the more diverse the observer’s vocabulary, the more reliable.
The better the physical conditions, the more accurate; the better the sensory acuity of the observer, the more accurate; the more normal the perceptual situation, the more adequate the cultural and educational background, the more reliable, the more adequate the vocabulary, the more reliable.
What does it mean for a property to be relevant to a generalization?
Options:
A. A property is relevant if it affects how consistently individuals display the studied quality.
B. A property is relevant if it increases the chances of individuals aligning with the expected outcome of the study.
C. A property is relevant if individuals with that property are more or less likely to have the studied quality.
D. A property is relevant if it determines how frequently the studied quality appears in a random sample.
A property is relevant if individuals with that property are more or less likely to have the studied quality.
Define “sample.”
Options:
A. The collection of variables analyzed to support a generalization.
B. The group of individuals actually examined/observed in a generalization.
C. The set of data points collected to establish a generalization’s validity.
D. The population of all possible individuals related to a generalization.
The group of individuals actually examined/observed in a generalization.
Define “population.”
Options:
A. The entire group of individuals targeted by a generalization.
B. The subset of individuals observed to support a generalization.
C. The sample of individuals used to test a generalization.
D. The collection of data points that represent a generalization.
The entire group of individuals targeted by a generalization.
Define “projected property.”
Options:
A. The characteristic of the population that we assume applies to the sample in a generalization.
B. The variable in a sample used to estimate statistical outcomes in the population.
C. The property of the sample in a generalization that we are inferring to hold about the population.
D. The attribute of the sample measured directly to predict population traits.
The property of the sample in a generalization that we are inferring to hold about the population.
What does it mean for a sample to be stratified (or matched to the general population)?
Options:
A. A sample is stratified if it is randomly selected from the population without any specific characteristics.
B. A sample is stratified if it shares the same relevant properties as the projected properties of the population.
C. A sample is stratified if it includes a higher proportion of individuals with the studied property.
D. A sample is stratified if it only includes individuals who meet the study’s outcome criteria.
A sample is stratified if it shares the same relevant properties as the projected properties of the population.
What does it mean for a sample to be randomly selected?
Options:
A. A randomly selected sample is one in which individuals are chosen based on specific relevant characteristics.
B. A randomly selected sample is one in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
C. A randomly selected sample is one that includes individuals with varying levels of the studied property.
D. A randomly selected sample is one where individuals are selected sequentially from the population list.
A randomly selected sample is one in which every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample.
What is exclusion bias?
Options:
A. A sampling technique has exclusion bias if it includes every subgroup equally, regardless of population size.
B. A sampling technique has exclusion bias if it tends to overrepresent certain groups beyond their percentage in the overall population.
C. A sampling technique has exclusion bias if it tends to include some group less in the sample than that group’s percentage in the overall population would indicate.
D. A sampling technique has exclusion bias if it selects individuals randomly without considering subgroup characteristics.
A sampling technique has exclusion bias if it tends to include some group less in the sample than that group’s percentage in the overall population would indicate.
What is self-selection bias?
Options:
A. Self-selection bias comes from randomly assigning individuals to a sample without screening.
B. Self-selection bias comes from allowing people to select themselves to be part of the sample.
C. Self-selection bias arises when only a specific demographic is chosen for the sample.
D. Self-selection bias occurs when individuals are selected based on specific characteristics by the researcher.
Self-selection bias comes from allowing people to select themselves to be part of the sample.
What does it mean to say that laws are defeasible?
Options:
A. Any law is defeasible if it applies universally without exception.
B. Any law is defeasible if it can be rendered null and void by exceptional circumstances.
C. Any law is defeasible if it remains valid under all possible scenarios.
D. Any law is defeasible if it requires strict adherence in every situation.
Any law is defeasible if it can be rendered null and void by exceptional circumstances.
What are the three rules for judging an instantiation?
Options:
A. The higher the percentage of the population supporting the rule, the more certain the conclusion; the larger the sample size, the more accurate the rule; the smaller the margin of error, the more confident the result.
B. The greater the percentage of the sample included in the general rule, the more likely the conclusion; the individual or sample instantiated to should be representative or typical; the greater the margin of error, the stronger the influence.
C. The higher the relevance of the rule to the sample, the greater the accuracy; the more unusual the individual, the stronger the rule; the larger the margin of error, the more valid the rule.
D. The smaller the sample, the more representative it is; the individual or sample should have unique qualities; the lesser the margin of error, the less reliable the result.
The greater the percentage of the sample included in the general rule, the more likely the conclusion; the individual or sample instantiated to should be representative or typical; the greater the margin of error, the stronger the influence.
