Midterm Exam #2

Question 1

Geoarchaeology

Answer 1

study, through application of geological principles and methods, of soils, sediments, landforms and stratigraphy in order to investigate archaeological sites and to answer archaeological questions regarding human activity in the past

Question 2

Sediments

Answer 2

inorganic and organic component of the earth’s surface deposited by natural processes

Question 3

Soils

Answer 3

in situ developmental sequences

Question 4

A Horizon

Answer 4

zone of accumulation and elluviation

Question 5

B Horizon

Answer 5

zone of deposition/illuviation

Question 6

C Horizon

Answer 6

Parent material
paleosols/buried A Horizons

Question 7

Matrix

Answer 7

Physical substance surrounding an archaeological find

Question 8

Provenance

Answer 8

3D position of an object within the matrix

Question 9

Association

Answer 9

2/more archaeological items (artifacts, ecofacts, features/fossils) occurring together within the same matrix

Question 10

Primary Context

Answer 10

context of the original context of the find, undisturbed by any factor

Question 11

Secondary Context

Answer 11

context the context of a find whose primary context has been disturbed by later activity

Question 12

Systematic Context

Answer 12

manufacture, use, re-use, and discard

Question 13

Archaeological Context

Answer 13

artifacts continue to be affected by human action and natural processes

Question 14

Taphonomy

Answer 14

The study of the processes of site disturbance and destruction
An understanding of site taphonomy can help an archaeologist make an informed and cautious interpretation of the past

Question 15

How Does a Site Get Interred?

Answer 15

Abandonment and Rotting plant matter

Question 16

Unconformities

Answer 16

Natural geological deposits separating 2 occupational strata
Indicate abandonment
Silt from a river flood
Windblown sand
Volcanic ash

Question 17

Site Formation Processes - Natural Transformation

Answer 17

Decomposition
Flooding
Volcanos
Earthquakes

Question 18

Site Formation Processes - Cultural Transformation

Answer 18

Discarding
Recycling
Curation
Deliberate and Accidental Destruction

Question 19

Relative Dating Methods

Answer 19

Used to date artifacts, features/geological deposits in relation to 1 another

Question 20

Absolute Dating Methods

Answer 20

Used to measure how old a specimen/deposit on a fixed calendric system

Question 21

Complicating Factors - Stratigraphy

Answer 21

Mixing: Digging operations turn dirt over and leave it in place in the deposit created by the digging
Filling: A depositional unit is laid down to alter the original level of the ground
Collection: The acquisition and reuse of ancient objects.
Unconformities: Temporal breaks in the stratigraphic sequence as a result of a change that caused deposition to cease for a period of time

Question 22

Seriation

Answer 22

chronological ordering of a group of artifacts/assemblages where the most similar are placed adjacent to each other in a series
Battleship Curves:
Frequency seriation: Measures changes in the proportional abundance, or frequency, observed among finds (e.g. counts of tools/ceramic types)

Question 23

Absolute Dating Method - Historical Objects

Answer 23

Uses objects of known historical age to date other archaeological finds
Doesn’t account for shelf life/reuse - date of manufacture not date of use
Historical documents
Works on: previously documented items

Question 24

Absolute Dating Method - Dendrochronology

Answer 24

A dating method that matches the annual growth rings of an archaeologically recovered wood sample to an established temporal sequence
Complicating factors: not always annual, not all trees have rings, habitat, old wood problem (only marks day when tree was cut down, doesn’t tell if it was used - cultural use)

Question 25

Absolute Dating Method - Radiocarbon (C14) Dating

Answer 25

A dating method that uses the decay of carbon-14 to date organic remains Most commonly used Complicating Factors: Limited in more recent materials (pollution), only up till 1980 Works on: Wood, charcoal, ivory, plants, shell, bone, and other organics - anything with significant amount of carbon collectant

Question 26

Absolute Dating Method - Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS) Dating

Answer 26

A newer, more accurate form of Radiocarbon dating - gives smaller range of date Accelerates ions to high energies before mass analysis (several percent the speed of light)

Question 26

Absolute Dating Method - Uranium Series Dating

Answer 26

Measures the decay of uranium isotopes found in calcium carbonate deposits Uranium (235U and 238U) decays into other isotopes (such as 230Th, thorium). Works on: Limestone bedrock, cave deposits (stalagmites, flow stone) Finds between 50,000 and 1 million years old

Question 26

Absolute Dating Method - Thermoluminescence Dating

Answer 26

Thermoluminescence dating reheats samples to emit photons Measures trapped electrons in surrounding radioactive material – annual dose radiation in sediment - to determine calendric age Only works on objects that were heated in the past, can’t date recent items either

Question 26

Absolute Dating Method - Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL)

Answer 26

Dates soils based on accumulation of trapped electrons Works for sediments without organic materials

Question 27

Absolute Dating Method - Potassium-Argon (K-AR) Dating

Answer 27

Uses the rate of decay of a radioactive form of potassium (40K) into argon (40 Ar).- 50,000-2000000000000 Works on: the minerals and rocks surrounding a fossil Does not date the fossil itself

Question 28

Absolute Dating Method - Fission-Track Dating

Answer 28

Measures the number of uranium fission tracks in a sample (narrow trails of damage) Works on: Volcanic rocks (obsidian, basalt) Finds between 100,000 and 20 million years old

Question 29

A working plan for a Research project

Answer 29

Multiple objectives. Multiple stages. Logistics. Budget. Used as the basis for grants and permits. In CRM projects, the research design often incorporates recommended courses of action to mitigate damage caused by construction work and other non-archaeological activities

Question 30

Conservation

Answer 30

process of treating artifacts, ecofacts, and in some cases even features, to stop decay and, if possible, reverse the deterioration process

Question 31

Approaches to Archaeological Survey - Non-probabilistic (Judgmental)

Answer 31

Targeting of specific areas by the excavator in a non-random manner. Results cannot be used to generalize

Question 32

Approaches to Archaeological Survey - Probabilistic (Random) sampling

Answer 32

Uses random sampling techniques. Makes generalizations derived from the sample based on mathematical models

Question 33

Simple Random Sampling

Answer 33

Simplest form of probabilistic sampling

Question 34

Stratified Random Sampling

Answer 34

Used when the survey area isn’t geographically uniform

Question 35

Systematic Sampling

Answer 35

Choose 1 unit at random, and then selects others at equal intervals from the 1st one

Question 36

Systematic Unaligned Sampling

Answer 36

Combines the characteristics of simple random sampling and systematic sampling into a single strategy

Question 37

Problems With Sampling

Answer 37

Sample fraction Surface visibility – shovel testing Deeply buried sites Accessibility Results – density of sites only

Question 38

Locating Sites - Traditional Methods

Answer 38

Check old maps, aerial photographs Talk to local people Pedestrian survey - look for surface artifacts, check exposures, dig shovel tests

Question 39

Locating Sites - Problems

Answer 39

Prior experience Emphasis on highly visible sites Judgemental (usually) Failure to include all areas used by people Landscape change? Culture change? Biased sample of sites

Question 40

Basic Types of Archaeological Survey - Reconnaissance Survey

Answer 40

preliminary examination of a survey area

Question 41

Basic Types of Archaeological Survey - Intensive Survey

Answer 41

systematic, detailed field survey that covers an entire area

Question 42

Methods to Ground Survey

Answer 42

Quadrants Transects Opportunistic sampling

Question 43

Surface Sampling Methods - Surface Collection

Answer 43

Gathers representative samples of artifacts from the surface

Question 44

Subsurface Sampling Methods

Answer 44

Shovel Tests: Shallow holes of a proscribed size and depth are made with a shovel Auger/Core Borer: Hand-operated/power tool Backhoe Testing

Question 45

Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Answer 45

Revolutionized the storage and display of cartographic data Uses GPS (Global Positioning System) data to render points, lines and polygons in 3D space

Question 46

2 Types - Mapping: Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

Answer 46

Total station Base station and handheld receiver

Question 47

Remote Sensing

Answer 47

The non-destructive techniques used to generate archaeological data without excavation The science of identifying, observing, interpreting and measuring objects or surfaces without coming into direct contact with them The use of some form of electromagnetic energy to detect and measure characteristics of an archaeological target (your textbooks definition)

Question 48

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Google Earth (GE)

Answer 48

You’d be surprised how many sites have been found on Google Earth! There are even crowdsourcing projects to look at Google Earth imagery and find sites

Question 49

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Aerial Photography

Answer 49

Look for shadow Marks, crop marks, soil marks, among other things Can also use infrared, false color photographs, muti-spectral imagery, etc.

Question 50

Aerial Remote Sensing Methods - Non-photographic methods

Answer 50

Satellite Sensor Imagery Aircraft-Borne Sensor Imagery Sideways-Looking Airborne Radar (SLAR) LiDAR

Question 51

LANDSAT 7

Answer 51

Satellite launched in 1999 Single nadir-pointing instrument Sun-synchronous Orbits 705 km above the earth, with a swath width of 185 km Revisits the same area every 16 days, generating 250 images per day 8 bands Band 6 is thermal infrared Band 8 is panchromatic

Question 52

Infrared Satellite Imaging

Answer 52

Most satellites have multiple bands that capture different wavelengths Visual Infrared Multispectral Computer programs can create false color images of particular bands ERDAS ArcGIS Hidden features may become visible Changes in vegetation, crop marks

Question 53

LiDAR Mapping

Answer 53

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) Pulsing laser (usually mounted on an aircraft) – short wavelength in narrow beams Measures distance based on the time it takes for a pulse of light to reach the target and return

Question 54

Ground-Penetrating Radar

Answer 54

Non-invasive survey Radar pulses are sent into the earth. These are reflected at different rates depending on the density of sub-surface features Creates a 3D subsurface “map”

Question 55

Gradient Magnetometry

Answer 55

Measures near-surface magnetic fields. Looking for differences in magnetism in the subsurface strata Relatively wide application: Measures magnetic anomalies caused by human activity

Question 56

What does magnetometry data look like?

Answer 56

Intense dipoles (neg and positive, black and white) are usually metal objects. Hearths usually appear as circular, less intense areas of high magnetism

Question 57

Soil Restivity

Answer 57

instrument passes current through the soil measures electrical resistance caused by buried artifacts and features presence of ground water and compaction of soil can affect results

Question 58

Benefits of Remote Sensing

Answer 58

Archaeological excavation is destructive Remote sensing can help plan excavation strategies

Question 59

Consultation

Answer 59

Aboriginal Consultation Office Project specific consultation Mandate process, steps Alberta Culture, Multiculturalism and the Status of Women Site specific consultation for Historic Resources Typically the HRV 4cs

Question 60

Obtain Permissions

Answer 60

First Nations communities Permit from government agencies Permission from land owner

Question 61

Deciding What to Dig

Answer 61

Research question? Resources available and other logistical considerations? Nature of the site and the deposits?

Question 62

Deciding How to Dig

Answer 62

Research question? Resources available and other logistical considerations? Establish the nature of the site Establish site’s horizontal limits Establish the site’s vertical limit

Question 63

Testing

Answer 63

tests of varying sizes distributed along the main axes of the grid excavated in various ways matrix may be screened or trowel sorted Then excavation

Question 64

Controlling Horizontal Space

Answer 64

Cartesian coordinate system--Two- or three-dimensional grid Datum-- a reference point for a grid or a map. Site datum--A stable , arbitrary reference point. Grid unit--A specific square on the Cartesian coordinate system

Question 65

Controlling Vertical Space

Answer 65

Levels are used to divide up vertical space 1. Natural levels – based on stratigraphy 2. Artificial levels – based on an arbitrary measurement

Question 66

Documentation

Answer 66

All deposits must be recorded in 3 dimensions. Plans and profiles Levels Point-plotting of special finds Photographs

Question 67

Special Excavation Issues

Answer 67

Occasionally archaeologists face unexpected and exciting challenges that require special excavation techniques Fragile Objects Burials Structures and Pits

Question 68

Methods: Vertical Trenches/Testing

Answer 68

Used on mounds/temples, deep deposits Reveals the full sequence of occupation/construction. Strategically placed to reveal the maximum amount of information

Question 69

Methods: Horizontal (Area) Excavation

Answer 69

Block excavations – bigger windows Establishes a grid over a selected large area of the site Uses the grid to establish horizontal spatial controls through the excavation of individual units within the grid