Midterm PS2255 Politics of the Middle East

Question 1

The Term Middle East and its Heritage

Answer 1

• Coined by Alfred Thayer in 1902
• In relation to Western Europe, eurocentric
• Benjamin MacQueen: Birthplace of 3 monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam).

Question 2

Regime
Authoritarian Rule
Monarchies v.s Republics v.s Semi-Democratic

Answer 2

• Regime: process by which leaders are selected and how those leaders exercise power. government system
• Authoritarian Rule: leaders are not selected through free and fair elections, power holders are not accountable to the broader public politically.
• Monarchies (Saudi Arabia, Qatar, UAE, Morocco, Kuwait, Bahrain, Jordan, Oman)
• Republics (Syria, Egypt, Algeria, Tunisia, Yemen)
• Semi Democratic (Iran and Turkey)

Question 3

5 Reasons the Middle East is in Crisis (News Night BBC)

Answer 3

1. Mutation of political Islam. New Ideology
2. Collapse of Arab Spring
3. New Alliances/Borders
4. Hegemony and Religion
5. Be worried (refugees, airspace, energy etc)

Question 4

About Ottoman Empire and Short Timeline

Answer 4

• 1300’s Anatolia emerged
• Early 16th century to the 20th century, became a central Middle Eastern and European power
• Decline of the Ottoman empire 1774-1914 due to successive territorial losses( Crimea, then the Balkans, then North Africa) and the start of WWI.
• Benjamin MacQueen: Ottoman Empire was multi ethnic and multi confessional empire peaking in the 17th and 18th centuries. Based on Turkish military might.

Question 5

Factors Behind the Decline of the Ottoman Empire (4)

Answer 5

Fragmentation inside the system of government in conjunction with the growth of the power and influence of Euro.

1. Political
2. Technology and Military
3. Economic
4. Ideological

Question 6

Political Factors Behind Decline of the Ottoman Empire

Answer 6

• Administrative decentralization led to a weaker central government while simultaneously strengthening the power of the individual provinces (vilayets). Principalities don’t seek to overthrow but rather want some autonomy such as collecting taxes and hereditary chain of governance. Especially in Egypt
• Weak Sultans as well as the rise of political discord within the court
• Formation of semi-autonomous groups and intermediary powers
• Increased power of the ulema, regional rulers and the military
• Increase in the number of social actors
• Paralyzed administration leads to territorial losses which in turn leads to loss of revenues which trickles down in to economic and military spheres. All a result of decentralization.

Question 7

Technological and Military Factors Behind Decline of Ottoman Empire

Answer 7

• The development of European military technology changed the balance of power resulting in permanent territorial losses
• European powers also getting privileges from the Sultans such as Russia being granted the right to represent Orthodox Greeks. Pretext for intervention in the millet system

Question 8

Economic Factors Behind Decline of Ottoman Empire

Answer 8

-Penetration of European merchant capital
-Previously autonomous region becomes incorporated in to the global economic system as a dependent region
-Raw materials for Euro industry and buy manufactured goods back = unequal terms of trade
-Banks and merchants have ever increasing control over the economy
Capitulation Agreements:
-First one under Sultan Suleiman I 1536. Created 5th millet category for French Catholics
-allowed European merchants to trade freely in ottoman ports. Tax and law exempt.
- European countries have jurisdiction over their own nationals limits the Sultans sovereignty and authority.
-European consuls exploit this and intervene in domestic affairs.
-Barats: certificates of protection for non muslim Ottoman nationals. Receive same protection that European nationals had. Advantages in external trade.
-Empire declares bankrupcy 1876

Question 9

Ideological Factors Behind the Decline of the Ottoman Empire

Answer 9

• New ideas emerge about societal organization. the dawn of nationalism
• Ruler and ruled should be of the same ethnicity, problem for the multi ethnic and multi religious Ottoman Empire
• Serbians, Greeks, Bulgarians create own nation states through rebellions that were manipulated by the European powers.

Question 10

Reform Policies of Mahmud II

Answer 10

1808-1839

• Mahmud II an Ottoman Sultan that began reforms in the military due to territorial losses.
• Goal was to import European technology but not European customs and values. Stop decline, not transform the empire.
• Predecessor established Ottoman embassies in Europe which facilitated new channels for transfer of knowledge.
• Mahmud II abolished and massacred the Janissaries (military elite with lots of power)
• Built Euro army named the Triumphant Soldiers of Muhammad. Wore French Uniforms
• founded schools
• sent students to Europe for advanced study
• reorganized the bureaucracy in to European style ministries
• replaced turban and robe with fez and frock coat. use of clothing to promote equality whereas previously clothing used to identify millet system classification.
• Limit authority of religious establishments such as the Shaykh al-Islam. Place ulema financed uner state control.
• **Important legacy of strengthening administration and the military. new political environment favouring new elite. displace religiously educated traditional elites.

Question 11

Egypt and Ottoman Reform Period

Answer 11

• Muhammad ‘Ali in Egypt begins the military reforms first, but is happening at the same time as Mahmud II who is aware of the Egyptian military reforms.
• Mahmud II asks Muhammad ‘Ali to help him crush the Greek Rebellions in the 1830’s and asks for help in reforming the Ottoman empire in the 1820’s

Question 12

Tanzimat

Answer 12

1839-1876
-The drivers of this reform period were the European trained elite bureaucrats. Trained at schools established by Mahmud II
1839 and 1856 2 Royal Decrees
-Pledge for equality for all subjects as citizens. Goal to contain nationalism among Christian subjects. Replace millet ordering and promote common Ottoman citizenship.
-Expansion of reforms from military to administration and education. ex) new civil code Mejelle which was a combination of new and customary Sharia law.
-Reform as a return to the Ottoman’s glorious past as exemplified by the nostalgic sentiment of the Preamble to the Reform Edict 1839

Question 13

Egypt Before and During Tanzimat

Answer 13

-Muhammad ‘Ali 1805-1849 state sponsored Europeanization of military and institutions that supported it. Came to power bc of Ottoman failure to assert direct authority after the French w/drawal.
Examples include:
-centralized bureaucracy based on merit. Created nw Egyptian native elite which was a lasting infrastructural achievement.
-Diplomatic and commercial contact with Europe
-Control over pop by conscription of peasants
-schools in medicine, chem and eng. fields to support mil
-state sponsored industrialization monopoly in external trade. Defiance of Capitulation treaties.
-Goal was independence.

Question 14

Treaties During Tanzimat

Answer 14

Treaty of London (1841): European powers impose settlement on the Ottoman Egyptian conflict. End of Egypts territorial expansion. GB fears unstable path to India. Army could not exceed 18000 men. Became hereditary. 
Baltalimani Treaty (1838): result of the Syrian domestic monopoly set up Egypt. Resulted in strict enforcement of the Capitulation treaties and and end to domestic monopolies, industrialization(schools and public works) and economic independence. Advantage for entry of British goods.

Question 15

Ismail the Magnificant

Answer 15

1863-1879 Ismail Pasha

• Egypt
• Complete Europeanization funded by the cotton boom
• increased debt to finance dev. projects **opening of the Suez canal
• 1876 Egypt declares bankruptcy
• Successor sells shared of Suez Canal to Britain to absolve debt. Feared taxing people would destabilize the regime.

Question 16

Summary of Consequences of the Reform Period*

Answer 16

• unintentionally undermine the old system. transform culture, norms, inst and structures.
• military reform resulted in civilian institutions that fostered a new elite
• increased role of the state lead to long term secularization of administrative and public culture (unintended)
• accumulation of loans and loss of economic sovereignty. ex) 1881 Occupation of Egypt by Britain and the 1876 Ottoman Debt Administration
• Institutional Dualism: traditional alongside modern.
• Divisive social impact: western educated elites v.s illiterate peasants. foundation for future tensions.

Question 17

Legacies Left by Ottomans*

Answer 17

• Centralized bureaucracy and bureaucratic rule
• Tanzimat: political modernization and centralization. reordering of admin, edu, social to follow European models. Euro trained public servants influence regions politics.
• Political role of military as engine for European style reforms and modernization. Frequent intervention in to civilian politics post-independence.
• Pattern of economic dependence on Europe. Source of continued resentment.

Question 18

Millet System

Answer 18

-Benjamin MacQueen: religion used as a primary tool of personal identification. categories for citizenship (Orthodox Greek, Armenian Catholic, Evangelic or Apostolic, Syriac Orthodox), each exercising own law administered by relevant legal authority. institutionalized preferential treatment for Muslims until Tanzimat reforms.

Question 19

Turkish and Arab Nationalism

Answer 19

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN

• Turkish Nationalism: grew from education and economic interaction between the Ottoman empire and Europe. Root in Anatolian peninsula. Reform led to sharpening of ethnic divides, decline in Ottomanism and increase in Arab/Turkish identities. Young Turk movement to temper power of Sultan when he suspended the constitution. Articulation of Turkish identity w/in key elements of the CUP (Committee of Union and Progress)
• Arab Nationalism: reaction to Young Turk movement. revival and dissemination of literary Arabic.

Question 20

Hussein-MacMahon Correspondence

Answer 20

• Ottomans enter WWI on side of central powers.
• British concerned about proclamation of jihad and its possible influence in turning Arabs and Indian muslims against B.
• Sharif Hussein was the ruler of Mecca, he distrusted the Young Turks. used tribal alliances to increase his autonomy.
• New state: arab peninsula, greater Syria and Iraq in exchange for an armed rebellion against the Ottomans. Controversy if Britain actually pledged to support a independent Arab state and then backed out.
• However, MacMahon stipulated that the territory west of Aleppo-Damascus line must be excluded (claimed bc it wasn’t all Arab but actually bc it belonged to France)
• Arab Revolt 1916 , mission for Islam to rescue the Sultan Caliph from the seculars till defeat of the Ottoman empire at the end of WWI.
• Perception that Arabs were mislead.

Question 21

San Remo Conference

Answer 21

1920

• Mandate for Syria and Lebanon to be assigned to France.
• France expels Sharif Hussein’s son Faysal from Damascus.
• Independent Arab state only lasted five months.
• Britain gets Iraq, Palestine, Transjordan
• League of Nations Covenant: “mandates are inhabited by people not yet able to stand by themselves” legal justification. European powers meant to prep their assigned countries for self government.

Question 22

Sykes-Picot Agreement and Balfour Declaration

Answer 22

• Preceded by Anglo French and Anglo Russian ententes as well as the Railway partitions (spheres of influence)
• Secret treaty among the entente, meant to keep the alliance intact, especially between Britain and France. Final partition of the empire.
• Sykes British and Picot French.
• Defined map of Middle East
• A way to resolve post war disagreements
• Contravene portions of the pledge Britain gave to Hussein through spheres of influence for Britain and France.
• France gains direct control over the Syrian Coast, exclusive indirect control over Syrian interior.
• Britain gains direct control over Southern Mesopotamia and indirect control from Gaza to Kirkuk.
• Balfour Declaration given by Britains foreign secretary, support for the creation of national home for Jewish people in Palestine. Rise of zionism: a movement to reestablish Jewish life on a national basis. Antagonism with Arab Revolt because contrary to Hussein-McMahon correspondence.

Question 23

Politics of the Notables

Answer 23

-mediated between local bases of support and occupying power. Fight against mandate rule but cannot be too aggressive because in order to continue being in power, they need to be in the good graces of the France or Britain.

Question 24

Egypt in the Interwar Era (Wafd)

Answer 24

-First Modern Oppositional Movement Egyptian National Party, resist foreign domination and imperialism headed by Ahmed Urabi in 1879. Rebellion by gaining control of army and planing installment of new parliament. Britain and France respond by seizing the Suez Canal and Cairo.
-1914, protectorate of Britain. Popular revolts result in empire by treaty style: a system of alliance building which allows a limited form of independence but with stipulations such as a British military base and British dictation of foreign policy. Secure interests without direct rule.
-Wafd (1918) were the landed classes and legal actors. Desire to represent Egypt at the Paris Peace Conference. Led by Sa’d Zaghlul (first elected Prime Minister). Mobilized popular discontent when Britain refused, he was exiled, this led to the 1919 revolution and the Wafd were granted the right to be national representatives of Egypt.
-Britain unilaterally declares independence of Egypt in 1922 but with 4 reservations: 1. security of imperial communication 2. Defense of Egypt, 3. Protection of foreign interests and minorities 4. Sudan and its future status. No sovereignty economically, foreign policy or defense.
.

Question 25

Iraq in the Interwar Era

Answer 25

• 1920 three separate provinces became Ieaz. Most ethnically and religiously diverse region. No political community prior.
• British support minority Sunnis in government.
• Countryside dominated by semi-autonomous tribal confederations, uprisings against the British attempt to replace decentralized rule with centralized governmental structures.
• Also empire by treaty like Egypt. Amir Faysal installed as ruler but he was foreign to the region. Increased autonomy in internal affairs through a series of treaties designed to legitimize Faysal.
• 1932 granted formal independence but Britain retained military and security privileges as well as favourable oil concessions.
• 1933 Faysal dies and power is consolidated in a narrow clique of political elite. Sectarian trend Sunni v.s Shi’a.
• 1936-1941 Military as the arbiter of Iraqi politics. self appointed role of true symbol of Iraq

Question 26

Syria in the Interwar Era

Answer 26

• Direct rule by France. Use High Commissioner and heavy military. Little scope for self government
• Divide and rule policy. Promote ethnic and regional fragmentation. Political units: Damascus, Aleppo, Alawite, Druze.
• Promote political prominence of propertied conservative class or urban Sunni Muslims, isolate Alawite and Druze.
• Add fertile valley as part of Lebanon, designed to increase sectarian conflict because the area was inhabited by Sunni Muslims. Ensure that the Christians need colonial help to rule in Lebanon.
• Institutional fragmentation is a legacy till today.
• 1925-1927 Great Revolt, objection to mandate rule. Emergence of National Bloc, similar to the Wafd Party however a conservative variety of nationalist, not necessarily revolutionary.
• By WWII no institutions of self government, territorial unity and national leaders are discredited by their moderate approaches. Legacy of political instability.

Question 27

Imprint of Mandate Period on the Region

Answer 27

• New states but with artificial borders, names, capitals and ethnic compositions.
• Sowed seeds for unresolved conflict, disputed boundaries, ethnic/religious tensions and stateless minorities (Owen).
• Hastened economic integration of new states. Entered in to international economy as dependent: exporters of agricultural products, mandatory powers control monetary and fiscal policies.
• Social Basis for Postcolonial regimes was that wealthy land owners dominated national political life v.s urban and rural poor who were mobilized by nationalist and socialist parties.
• Struggles and questions regarding identity. Authentic v.s Imported. Ethnic/Tribal v.s Civic Nationality.

Question 28

Ottoman and Colonial Legacies Combined Post Interwar Era

Answer 28

1. Resilient state system: centralized rule. powerful security apparatus and reliance on fear and coercion due to military heritage. Euro build on late Ottoman reforms. Lead to overemphasis on security and underdevelopment of other areas such as education and health.
2. Emergence of new elites and institutions
3. State control of religious institutions. Ulema lose autonomy.
4. Economic dependence and cultural tensions. identity and institutional crisis. Orientalism and Islam, Islam’s compatibility with modernity.

Question 29

Colonialism In Algeria

Answer 29

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN

• 1830-1970 limited to urban areas though existing territories and land acquisition in main agricultural areas.
• Displacement of Arab and Berber populations to less fertile lands leads to disease and food shortages.
• Large number of Europeans migrate to Algeria, rupture social fabric bc dominate all aspects of Algerian life.
• 1870 total colonization, incorporate Algeria as part of French metropole, different than the rest of the Arab world.

Question 30

Economic Domination in Tunisia

Answer 30

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN

• Semblance of Tunisian autonomy couple with French effort to ensure commercial interests in Mediterranean
• Autonomy undermined by French Resident General who maintained control over economy and armed forces.
• Establish as French protectorate despite resistance, pre-existing French presence because Tunisia had declared bankruptcy.
• 1883 La Marsa Convention gave a formalized role to the Resident General, who was bound to implement policies dictated by Paris. Institutions intact but conduit for French policy priorities.
• Create local elite with investment in the protectorate to curb popular movements.

Question 31

Muslim Brotherhood

Answer 31

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN

• Founded in 1928 by school teacher Hassan al-Banna in area near Suez Canal with heaviest British occupation
• Implementation of Shari’ah law to subvert British domination. Counter vision of superior West using Islamic discourses
• 1987 Islamic Resistance Movement
• Wafd active independence based on liberal ideology whereas the Muslim Brotherhood accused Wafd of reinforcing British and European domination.

Question 32

Republic Of Turkey Cleveland and Bunton

Answer 32

Cleveland and Bunton

• Turkish resistance to the Treaty of Sevres (1920) which punished the Ottoman empire and granted self determination to Christians. Finances of gvts under allied control and restoration of the Capitulations.
• In 1920, a body of rebel representatives forms the Grand National Assembly with Kemal Ataturk as president. Justification: Istanbul government controlled by foreign occupiers and thus not representative of the people. Leads to the adoption of popularity sovereignty. Dismantle Treaty of Sevres, takes control of military and eventually abolishes the sultanate by separating the caliphate and the sultanate. End of ottoman political era and dual governments fighting for recognition in Turkey.

Question 33

Young Turks

Answer 33

-1908-1918
-Reformers were inspired by Japans victory over Russia. Example of resisting using tools of European success: constitution and a modern army
-Made up of three figures: exiled figures, discontented civil servants and students, army officers.
-Protest groups were critical of tyranny of Abdul Hamid II, who annulled the tanzimat constitution that enshrined equality of all.
-Demand for reinstitution of the constitution and restoration of Ottomanism.
-Committee for Union and Progress: CUP. secret protest society civil servants and military students. want to preserve territorial integrity and reinstitute 1876 constitution.
-1908 Revolution second constitutional era, remove Abdul Hamid. 1909 lead to counter revolutions by clerics and some military officers.
-1908-1913 Young turks were supportive of intellectual freedom, 1913-1918 turned in to an oppressive military dictatorship.
-Commitment to Ottomanism, constitutional government, limiting the monarchy and equal rights for non Muslims (abolish Millet system) , Growing Turkish cultural movement in response to Balkan nationalism
-NOT nationalists.
Ziya Gokalp: “Belong to Turkish nation, Muslim religious community and European civilization”

Question 34

Impact of CUP Leaders

Answer 34

• Committee for Union and Progress in Turkey
• Beginning of Arabism in Arab provinces leads to a pronationalist outlook with the goal of decentralization and the cultural goal of greater recognition for Arab cultural identity.
• NOT a call for independence like the Christians in the Balkans but changes like making Arabic the official language.
• This was all a response to the removal of Arab administrators by the CUP.

Question 35

Iranian Constitutionalists

Answer 35

1905-1911
-Ottoman Constitutional revolution to curb the authority of the shah and the royal autocracy
-Heterogeneous constitutional movement led by reformist bureaucratic elite and officer corps, traditional bazaar merchants, ulema and a group of radical reformers.
Causes of Anti-government protest:
1. foreign economic penetration. economic concessions to Britain to keep court in luxury. Oil right awarded to William D’arcy and the Iranian government was only granted 16% royalty.
2. favorable customs rates to foreigners. hurt bazaaris, local craft industries. see concessions as an offense as it was sold to foreign Christians. Threat to economic survival.
3. small euro-oriented reformers opposed to royal court corruption and foreign exploitation under the Qajars.
4. Some members Ulema see the economic concerns and constitutional movement as an opportunity to gain independence from the state. Larger group of ulema are anti-revolutionist and side with traditionalist.

Question 36

Friction between Different Factions in Iran

Answer 36

• 1st assembly (Majlis) met in 1906. not a secularizing constitution. Insert a clause that states that shi’ism is the state religion and there would be a supreme court committee of clerics to vet whether laws compatible with sharia.
• Reformers v.s Bazaaris and Ulema (traditionalists) over
  1. the appropriate state/religion relationship
  2. questions of equal rights for non muslims
  3. pace and extent of social reform.
• Results in fractions within the coalition that leaves Iran vulnerable to Russian pressure. Assembly is suspended and in 1911, Iran is divided in to British and Soviet spheres of Influence.
• Royal autocracy curbed, but due to the constitutional alliance breaking down, opportunity for intervention and occupation.

Question 37

Constitutional Movements in Iran and the Ottoman Empire

Why did the Ottoman Constitutional Reform Fail?

Answer 37

• twin pressures from European expansionism and domestic discontent. Ottomans and the Iranian elite readjust governing institutions
• Young Turks in 1876 want the constitution restored with equality for all, the policy of the ottomans designed to generate spirit of unity at a time when ethnic communities demanded independence
• Ottoman constitutional movement failed because the CUP reform because a military dictatorship which alienated the Arabs through centralization. Successful Balkan nationalism and subsequent independence.
• Iran had a similar goal: the preservation of the state from internal and external aggression. different directions for reform made governing difficult
• –>deteriorating order—>British and Russian occupations which were violations of sovereignty and contributed to anti-western sentiments

Question 38

Comparison of Turkey and Iran During the Interwar Years

Answer 38

• Both were under the occupation of allied powers with a monarchy, which was considered compromised, nominally presiding.
• Both countries had popular discontent aimed against foreign occupation and influence
• However in turkey, the popular discontent lead to national independence under Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
• In Iran, anti foreign demonstrations lead to military commanders forcing the shah to institute a new government. consolidation of power, using military against the tribal rebellions. Convince Majlis to depose Qajar Dynasty and convene a constituent assembly where in In 1925, crown the Pahlavis
• Both had state sponsored reforms but of different types. Turkey had a republican government with a strong executive that sought to replace religion with ideology and nationalism as the primary loyalty. privatization of religion
• However in Iran, state sponsored reforms resulted in monarchical and hereditary rule.
• Comparable in efforts to separate state from influence of religious organization ans projects of nation building.
• WWII, Turkey’s friendly neutrality till 3 months before the armistice and subsequent declaration of war on Ger –> qualify for Charter membership., Iran’s neutrality not respected, British and Society occupation.

Question 39

Authoritarian Reform in Turkey and Iran During Interwar Years

Answer 39

• Root out Ottoman and Qajar past in Iran. Westernization through creation of a national secular culture through people’s houses, the society of public guidance which emphasized the achievements of pre-Islamic empires.
• Iran’s reforms less consistent
• Ataturk used a process of continuing and increasing the intensity of the Ottoman era reforms. Secularization of politics and institutions with Swiss civil code. Shari’a was abolished in Turkey and restricted in Iran to only family law and personal status. Broke the financial power of the ulema in both countries. Root out Ottoman, reform alphabet and created the historical society in 1925 which used a nationalist historical lens.
• An example of forced westernization of social life was the ban on the veil in Iran.
• Educational reforms increased literacy and trained new administrators. Religious schools abolished in Turkey but enrollment in religious primary school actually went up in iran.
• One man rule in Turkey and Iran. National assemblies as ‘rubber stamps’

Question 40

Reza Pahlavi v.s Kemal Ataturk

Answer 40

Reza Pahlavi: fragile, selective reformer ex) ignored the constitution rather than reforming it, that didn’t create domestic support through indoctrination but rather an institutional base and control over the bureaucracy using patronage ( award posts to regime supporters in his hotels, casinos and charitable foundations). had large land holdings, seen as self serving like the rulers during the mandate era.
Kemal Ataturk: committed Westernizer and reformer who sowed seeds for future popular democratic government.

Question 41

Free Officers Coup Egypt

Answer 41

-Paralysis of old regime due to perpetual political crisis. British won’t grant independence due to Suez Canal interests.
-Resentment of British and Egyptian ruling class.
-Rich Group of Egyptian nationalists in the armed forces lead by Nasser that staged a coup to institute a new regime 1952. Replace ex Ottoman political elite with sons of small peasant proprietors and petty merchants. Grievances: growing gap between rich and poor as well as anti-West sentiments.
6 Point program for Military Led Government post Coup
1. destroy British colonialism and European collaborators
2. elimination of feudalism
3. end of political control of state by foreign capital
4. social justice and the end of class exploitation
5. strong national army
6. healthy democratic life

Question 42

Ataturk v.s Nasser Similarities

Answer 42

• Both reformers that freed their respective countries from foreign occupation and domination. Abolished co-opted monarch.
• Radical restructuring of the old order, populist republics with nominal democracies. President as the head of mas based party. Use of indoctrination, and reliance on a domestic power base.
• Nation building

Question 43

Ataturk v.s Nasser v.s Reza Shah Pahlavi Differences

Answer 43

• Secularism. Ataturk was principled in his elimination of Islam from the public sphere whereas Nasser instrumentalized Islam for political purposes: appeal of Islamic institutions to legitimize Arab socialism. used to legitimize rule where as Reza Shah and Ataturk secularization. Nasser did not attempt to cut off from past identities, Iran root out Qajar past and Turkey root out Ottoman past.
• Nasser’s popularity due to social reforms in conjunction with foreign policy ventures, and pan-Arabist ambitions. an example would be the perception of Nasser as standing up to the Western powers during the Suez Crisis
• Ataturk had a restrained foreign policy and disavowed pan-Turkism. Focus on Turkish policies. Respect neutrality in WWII
• Reza Shah Pahlavi used violence and coercion and thus had poor public opinion. Ignores the 1907 fundamental laws that stated no laws cold contravene sharia. (insisted upon by the ulema) Different use of Islam.

Question 44

Reforms of the Ataturk Era

Answer 44

Cleveland and Bunton
-Constitutional popular sovereignty and republicanism exercised through the Grand National Assembly
-Sole party in the state at the time was the Republican People’s Party (RPP). President had lots of power because control RPP and through it the assembly.
-Continue 19th century transformation/reform but root out Ottoman past.
Foundations of Kemalism
1. Reformism
2. Republicanism
3. Secularism:r educe influence of Islam on political and social life and redirect public loyalty to the nation and state symbols. Remove Islam as an inst regulating agent.ex) depose and abolish caliphate, abolish sharia, ban religious practices in public such as the fez
4. Nationalism and 5. Populism. Pride in Turkishness and promote cultural symbols of identity. ex) new alphabet to replace Arabic.
6. Etatism: total control of state over citizens. State capitalism, use state funds to construct major projects using 5 year plans. neglect agricultural development.

Question 45

Liberal Experiment in Egypt (interwar years)

Answer 45

• Liberal Experiment 1924-1936. short lived parliamentary democracy. coming from euro trained Wafd elites.
• Wafd win first elections, but the nature of the constitution ensured a weak legislature with extensive power to King, spirit of compromise and respect doesn’t take root. In conjunction with continued British intervention in domestic affairs it failed. Power struggle between Wafd, British and King. Wafd want more power at expense of King, King wants to preserve power sides with British and British support King.
• Not popular with people because 1. dominated by land holding elites so little common economic grievances 2. pro-west politicians seen as an attack upon tradition. End of WWII Wafd seen as weak and co opted. Leads to Islamic activism.

Question 46

Egypt Post WWII

Answer 46

• Wafd, monarchy and parliamentary government are discredited. Seen as co-opted.
• February Fourth Incident. British ambassador gives King Faruq ultimatum, abdicate or invite Wafd to form government. Infuriates nationalists and discredits Wafd who took office under protection of British tanks.
• Accelerated the demise of parliamentary system. King humiliated, Wafd compromised.

Question 47

Nasser Years

Answer 47

• Nasser destroyed all rivals both civilian and military to secure status as commanding political force.
• King Faruq was forced to abdicate the monarchy was abolished, ban all parties and old politicians, anti left and drove Muslim Brotherhood underground after attempted assassination.
• 1952 Agrarian Reform, increased popular support. Abolished all civil titles.
• 1962 Charter for national Action with the goals of freedom, socialism and unity, the vanguard of the Arab Revolution.
• Mass based party- the Arab Socialist Union headed by Nasser. instrumental in mobilizing public opinion and socializing youth around regime ideals.
• new cultural orientation: from western secular (interwar era) to emphasis on the Arabness of Egypt for Arab unity and Egyptian hegemony. But Arab unity in tension with Egyptian intervention in other countries

Question 48

Suez Crisis

Answer 48

• 1955 Nasser had plans to build a second damn across the Nile but needed funding.
• World Bank put together a loan package with the US and Britain agreeing to participate but impose conditions, Britain and US withdraw in 1956 while Nasser considers the terms.
• 1956 Nasser nationalizes the Suez Canal in response. Popular strategic move in the Arab world due to the Suez Canal being a symbol of Western domination.
• During the negotiations, Britain, France and Israel engage in a secret joint military action with an Israeli airstrike in Sinai.
• Under US pressure, Britain and France sign a UN sponsored cease fire.
• Nasser is seen as the hero who stood up to the coercive colonial and imperial practices of the West.

Question 49

Ba’ath Party

Answer 49

• Most significant ideological party of the post war era
• Founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah al din al-Bitar.
• Influence beyond borders
• Revolutionary Arabism coupled with desire for Arab unity under one nation.
• Goals: end social injustice, class exploitation, tyranny, establish freedom, democracy and socialism.

Question 50

Syria and Iraq During the Interwar Years (Comparison to Nasser)

Answer 50

• Nasser got ride of rivals to prevent factionalism (abolished monarchy, bans all political parties and former politicians).
• Postwar instability due to:
  1. Divide and rule policies of the colonial mandate era that let to identification along ethnic lines and sectarian conflict. Retain ethnic loyalty at expense of national one (French Political units: Damascus, Aleppo, Alawite, Druze)
• Civilian factionalism due to the diverse and numerous ideological political parties (banned under Nasser)
  2. Both politicize the military, can’t prevent fragmentation of officer corps. Nasser - secured loyalty of the army as a united unit.
  3. Country’s place in struggle for dominance in the Arab world.

Question 51

Iraq Post WW’s

Answer 51

• Iraq was under the Hashemite monarchy until 1958
• Regime stagnation due to anti-Nasser propoganda and a pro-British alliance led to an overthrow by Abd al-Karim Qasim.
• Decade of instability, like Syria but unlike Egypt.
• Unstable military rule due to factionalism
• Emergence of ideological parties like Syria but unlike Egypt (because Nasser banned them) (communists v.s Ba’ath)
• Mobilization behind common goals seemingly impossible due to divided society. Economic, social and religious interest groups. Shi’a are the underrepresented majority. Oppose pan-Arabism. Sunnis have all the power
• 1968 Ba’athist coup, 1979 Saddam Hussein becomes president and appoints kinsmen from Takrit to key governmental positions. More personal tone to the regime.

Question 52

Summary of Middle East After WWII

Answer 52

• parliamentary regimes from the mandate era are discredited/abolished through military coups in Syria, Egypt and Iraq
• Resilience of authoritarianism through repression and coercion. revolution movements become authoritarian one party oligarchical in nature.
• parliamentary regimes don’t survive in the region because:
  1. elitism of the system by entrenched elites
  2. endemic corruption
  3. can’t end foreign corruption, western intervention (Free Officers Coup did expel British but still became oligarchical).
  4. foreign intervention, sabotage, fragile democracies and replace them with nationalistic military domestic one party regimes.
  5. great power intervention reinforce chauvinistic nationalism, which diverted attention away from human and social development
  4. foster authoritarian tendencies with unproductive expenditures on defense security.

Question 53

Forms and Factors Behind US Involvement

Answer 53

-Maintain mil bases in several countries and naval nearby and naval capabilities nearby
-Intervene in domestic affairs subtly and covertly. Opt for status quo.
-Order and stability by supporting allies. Didn’t support revolutionary cases in most cases
-Orthodoxy in foreign policy because domestic dichotomy in politics
-Fund and train military in friendly government
-Anti-soviet military alliance between Middle Eastern countries
-Provide economic aid, Truman’s Point 4 Program and others.
-Why Step In :
3 Pillars of US Cold War Policy since 1950’s
1. Ensure security and prosperity of Israel (seen as under perpetual threat
2. Contain Soviets
3. Secure access to oil

Question 54

Invasion of Iraq Justifications

Answer 54

Overt:
1. Iraqi weapons of mass destruction
2. Ba’ath Party’s human rights violations. Democratization
Covert:
1. Iraqi oil reserves
2. Neoconservative influences in Washington. Establishment of interventionist policy.
US foreign policy critiqued as not being consistent, but can be. Turf wards between the Pentagon and the State Department. ex of consistency of policy) Bush freezing aid to the Mubarak administration when it jailed a critical journalist. true commitment to democratization?

Question 55

Iraqi/US Relations Leading Up to Invasion

Answer 55

• Shifts in US policy towards Iraq.
• Support Ba’athist party because they were anti-communist
• Shift when Ba’ath party signs friendly treaty in 1972. 1979 Islamic revolution created another reversal, warm relations till 90’s (Iraq annexes Kuwait)
• Post Cold war policy of dual containment with Iraq and Iran. Isolate them using sanctions. more interventionist, break from previous policy by George Bush Sr.
• Poorly conceived strategy because of sectarian violence and the collapse of state institutions. Rise of ISIS and anti Americanism as well as waning US hegemony in the region
• UN monitoring system (UN Special Commission on Disarmament) for WMD’s, Saddam Hussein refuses to let them monitor till economic sanctions lifted, war of attrition 2003.

Question 56

Access to Oil in the Middle East

Answer 56

• discovery of oil enhances strategic importance of the middle east **Churchill’s decision to transition the British navy from coal powered to oil powered.
• Increased Western intervention in Iran, Iraq and Saudi Arabia
• Template: foreign control of oil –> popular resentment
• -> attempt to nationalize –> resistance by government backed foreign companies –> foreign government covertly re institutes friendly non democratic regimes

Question 57

Oil in Iran

Answer 57

• First place that oil was exploited industrially in commercial quantities.
• 1901 60 year concession given to Britains William D’arcy during the time of the Qajar Dynasty.
• Churchill coal to oil decision spurs naval revolution (+ exponential increase of uses for petroleum in 20th century)
  1. Britain dependent on imported commodity
  2. Increase strategic importance of Iran
  3. New level of encroachment of Iranian sovereignty to ensure security of supply. Use of British Indian troops. British control Southern coastal region, British quasi sovereignty. Increased economic control (different than Capitulations) through direct ownership by British government of Oil in Iran (Anglo Persian Oil Company 51% ownership post boycott)
• 1932 Reza Shah attempts to cancel the concession but loses at the League of Nations Court of Justice.
• 1951 attempted nationalization under Mosaddeq, foreign collusion to boycott Iranian oil and 1953 CIA/MI6 stage a coup to reinstate Shah’s absolute power. Return to subservience of Western oil companies except the US now has a 40% share.
• Iran successfully nationalized in 1979

Question 58

Oil in Iraq

Answer 58

• Iraq was never a political unit, 3 different provinces. -Unsynchronized British occupation (British Indian gvt and British officials in Egypt)
• Concessions to foreign consortium dominated by Anglo Persian Oil Company in 1925
• British pressure resulted in the ratification despite heavy opposition.
• 1975 Ba’ath nationalizes
• 2003 Iraqi invasion, oil firm and government collusion. British trade minister lobbies US on behalf of BP, BP gets favorable concessions and Britain fights with the US
• Coalition in West to ensure that the PM candidates know they must return to domination from big oil companies
• 2006 US pressures Maliki government to introduce new oil legislation, parliament refuses to pass it so use contracts to bypass. return to big oil.
• Contracts: long term, no requirements for investment in local economies and hiring locals

Question 59

Post OPEC Era

Answer 59

• Till 1960’s, 7 sisters keep prices low to fuel power war recovery
• 1973 onwards, Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries increase prices and thus revenues.
• New wealth strengthens unrepresentative political systems at the expense of political and social change.
• Regimes more resilient
• Indigenous control over oil strengthens status quo
• Western oil companies lose control but not revenue, shift to areas such as refining and shipping. US still has mil bases in Saudi
• Oil wealth + Lack of political representation leads to
  1. system of patronage and corruption instead of human development. Reliance on Western patrons.
  2. Expensive weapons systems bought from external powers.

Question 60

Saudi Arabia

Answer 60

• Ib’n Saud, father to four succeeding Kings.
• Alliance with puritanical religious reform movement + tribal connections.
• Support from US and Britain.
• Standard Oil of California in Saudi in 1933, joined with Texaco in 1936
• Ib’n Saud balance US and Britain off each other, also Sir Percy Cox arrogance
• Makes US dominant force and ARAMCO a swing producer
• Largest oil reserves in the world with a strategic location
• Keep US troops and oil workers strictly segregated (xenophobic subjects)

Question 61

Republic of Turkey MacQueen

Answer 61

BENJAMIN MACQUEEN

• 1923 with Kemal Ataturk as head of state
• Against an independent Armenian State, possible genocide (debated)
• Six Principles
  1. Republicanism
  2. Secularism
  3. Populism
  4. Nationalism
  5. Statism
  6. Reformism