Module 12 - Gender Development

Question 1

sex

Answer 1

categories distinguishing between biological males and females on the basis of characteristics such as hormones, reproductive organs, sex chromosomes, etc.
- fuzzy with lots of exceptions

Question 2

gender

Answer 2

social categories encompassing expectations of behaviour, social roles, and other characteristics include men, women, boys, girls and non-binary categories
- fuzzy with lots of exceptions

Question 3

cisgender

Answer 3

indentifying with the gender that ones cultures typically assigns on the basis of ones biological sex

Question 4

transgender

Answer 4

indentifying with a gender other than what ones culture typically assigns on the basis of sex

Question 5

gender binary

Answer 5

classification of gender into two opposing categories (men and women(

Question 6

non-binary

Answer 6

people whose gender does not fit into the gender binary prescribed by many cultures

Question 7

challenges to the gender binary

Answer 7

1. there aren’t men and women’s brains (more differences along individual brains)
2. there arent strictly male and female hormones (more variance within individuals even when there is an average difference in hormone levels)
3. most people exhibit a mix of gender-typical behaviours (behaviours are gender-typical not gender exclusive)
4. The gender binary is far from universal
5. beliefs about gender are learned about childhood

Question 8

gender typing

Answer 8

learning (direct and indirectly) about gender roles and expectations from social experiences

Question 9

gender typed

Answer 9

behaviours that are believed to be stereotypical for someone of a certain gender

Question 10

gender nonconforming

Answer 10

someone whose interest, beliefs, or behaviour do not align with the gender their culture assumes they belong to

Question 11

androgens

Answer 11

class of hormones occurring at higher levels in males than in females (testosterone)
- high levels lead to masculinization of the body and brain (triggers the production by Y chromosome at 6 weeks)

Question 12

intersex conditions

Answer 12

having charcterisitcs assocaited wiht the opposite sex or with both sexes, or having partial developments of ones own genetic sex’s characterisitcs

Question 13

Congenital adenral hyperplasia (CAH)

Answer 13

• genetic condition resulting in high levels of androgen production in prenatal development
• occurs in both genetic females and males
• masculization of the external genitalia (enlarged clit but still have female reproductive structures)
• affects play behaviour in childhood

Question 13

androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)

Answer 13

• genetic conditon resulting in androgen receptors malfunction
• androgens are produced but don’t trigger the usual changes in sexual differentiation
• genetic males develop like females (female external genitalia but without the reproductive structures)
• affect play behaviour in childhood and they - -
• typically identify as a girl

Question 14

gender schemas

Answer 14

• organized understadning of gender
• developped between 18-24 months
• they are surprised when people do actions that defy gender conventions
• by 2.5 can sort objects by gender
• by 3 years they can use gender labels spontaneously

Question 15

gender labeling

Answer 15

• stereotypically labelling increases over the course of preschool years
• eventually with start to label their own gender
• don’t exhibit belief in gender constancy

Question 16

gender constancy

Answer 16

belief that if you change your appearance of behaviour, your gender changes as well

Question 17

gender-typed behaviours

Answer 17

• by age 2, prefer gender types preferences (boy toys over girl toys)
• genetic females with CAH - like boy toys more
• genetic males with AIS - like girl toys more
• transgender children - self-identified gender play

Question 18

gender segregation

Answer 18

tendency to affiliate with same-gender peers and avoid other-gender peers
- increase between ages 3 and 6 (cis-gender study)
- gender in-groups reinforce gender stereotyping and conformity
- more time with the child of a given group, more gender-typed behaviour
- conflicts between nonconforming interests and pressure to conform put children at risk for anxiety/depression

Question 19

gender in middle childhood

Answer 19

• by age 6, see gender as a stable aspect of identity (gender constancy)
• still stereotypically thinking but more flexible and able to recognize exceptions
• trans children are less stereotypical in thinking about gender (and so are their siblings, beliefs about gender are learned)
  0 by age 9, children see gender as a socially constructed category (aware that there can be social repercussions for violating gender norms, recognize gender discriminations, also the time when children exclude others on the basis of gender)

Question 20

gender in adolescents

Answer 20

• time of both gender-role intensification and gender-role flexibility
• some teens become increasingly concerned with adhering to genre roles
• increases in the rate of gender discrimination and harassment
• for many, this is a time of identity flexibility and exploration (more amongst girls than boys)
• increased stigmatization when their community is highly heteronormative

Question 21

interpreting gender differences in cisgender

Answer 21

• our society suggest that cisgnder boys and girls are fundamentally different from each other –> both most difference are very small
• on average, genetic males tend to be physically stronger and faster than genetic females (effect size increase with the onset of puberty)

Question 22

effect size

Answer 22

the magnitude of the differences between two groups’ averages and the amount of overlap in their distributions
- averages difference do not hold for all comparisons between members of the two groups (not individuals)

Question 23

intelligent and acheivement

Answer 23

• boys and girls are hihgly similaire in general intelligence
• specific difference are exaggerated and often damaging to children outcomes
• girls tend to achieve greater success academically than boys (slightly higher grades complete high school and uni)

Question 24

verbal skills

Answer 24

• girls tend to develop some langauge skills slightly earlier that boys
• girls tend to outperform boys in reading and writing
• boys are more likely to encounter speech and reading related difficulites

Question 25

stem-realted achievement

Answer 25

• boys tend to outperform girls in standardized math tests (gap has shruken a lot recently)
• boys slightly outperform girls in mental spatialrotations taks and math testing
• boys are overepresented in engineering and CS where girl are in bio and biomed sciences

Question 26

biological and hormonal differences

Answer 26

• prenatal androgen exposure assocaited with greater spatial abilities
• genetic amles and females exposed to higher levels of androgens
• genetic males with AIS tend to score lower on spatial ability tests than genetic females
• hard to disentagle from experiences

Question 27

cognitive and motivational influecnes

Answer 27

• children are motivated to achieve in areas in which they are expected to succeed (internalized gender stereotypes impact motivation and performance - self-fulfilling prophecy)
• gender difference in interest and beliefs about ability predict alter achievement and career goals

Question 28

social and cultural influences

Answer 28

• parents and teachers can communicate stereotypes to children (explicitly or implicitly)
• peers can reinforce norms and stereotypes
• cultural norms set children’s expectations (important of diversity in representation)

Question 29

interpersonal goals and communication

Answer 29

• boys and girsl are similiar in talkativeness
• girls are more likely yo share personal thoughts and feeling. more likely to be more collaborative and affliative
• boys may be more assertive and competitive

Question 30

aggression

Answer 30

• boys are more aggressive (widespread belief) but it depends on what kind of aggression

direct:
- boys are more than girls
- both physical nd verbal is higher for boys than girls in childhood and adulthood
- declines with age (greater decrease for girls)

indirect:
- no gender differences
- when girls are aggressive, tend to use indirect over direct aggression
- boys will use both types

Question 31

direct and indirect aggression

Answer 31

direct: overt physical or verbal cts intended to cause harm

indirect: damaging a person’s social standing through gossip, exclusion,etc.

Question 32

where do the differences in aggression come from?

Answer 32

biological:
- boys tend to have more difficulty regulating emotional arousal
social motivation:
- girls tend to exhibit more empathy
- girls tend to value affiliating and harmony over social dominance
adult set standards:
- boys will be boys
- study with children in snowsuits engaging in playful fighting
- when adults were told it was boys, they rated the behaviour to be less aggressive compared to when they were told it was girls
- children view physical aggression as more acceptable when perpetrated by boys
parenting:
- harsh parenting and inconsistent monitoring is associated with greater levels of aggression
media:
- violent media associated with physical violence (bobo studies)
- boys tend to watch/play with violent media more often
- girls tend to prefer shows featuring indirect aggression
culture and experiences:
- lax attitudes and witnessing violence increase aggression, particularly in boys