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Human Biology > Module 12: The Lymphatic System > Flashcards

Module 12: The Lymphatic System Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the three basic functions of the lymphatic system?

A

Fluid balance, fat absorption, and immunological defense.

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2
Q

Lymphatic tissue

A

Groups of lymphocytes and macrophages that provide immune protection.

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3
Q

Lymph nodes

A

Encapsulated masses of lymphatic tissue found along lymph vessels.

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4
Q

Lympth

A

Watery liquid formed from interstitial fluid and found in lymph vessels.

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5
Q

When does interstitial fluid become lymph?

A

Interstitial fluid becomes lymph when it enters a lymph vessel.

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6
Q

Where is lymph returned to the circulatory system?

A

It enters the system either through the right lymphatic trunks or the thoracic duct, which dump the lymph into the subclavian veins.

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7
Q

Lymph capillaries

A

Porous, blind beginnings of lymphatic vessels. They are made of epithelial cells.

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8
Q

How does lymph flow through the lymphatic system?

A

Skeletal muscles squeeze the lymph vessels, “pumping” them. One-way valves prevent the lymph from flowing backwards. Also, in the larger lymph vessels, contraction of smooth muscle moves the lymph. When you breathe, pressure changes in the thoracic region, pulling lymph into the thoracic duct and speeding its return to the subclavian vein.

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9
Q

Edema

A

A buildup of excess interstitial fluid in the tissues, which lead to swelling.

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10
Q

How does interstitial fluid leave the capillary?

A

Blood is flowing through the capillary under pressure, so it pushes out the fluid through pores. Blood cells and proteins are too large to be pushed out, however, leaving the interstitial fluid behind.

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11
Q

How does interstitial fluid reenter the capillary?

A

After bathing the cells in oxygen and nutrients and picking up waste products and carbon dioxide, the fluid is drawn back into the capillary by osmosis.

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12
Q

If the 10% of interstitial fluid left behind by the capillaries were not removed, what would happen to the body?

A

Too much interstitial fluid creates too wide a space between the cells and the all-important capillary blood supply, and diffusion of oxygen and nutrients to the cell is slowed. This can cause cells to die if the situation becomes severe enough.

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13
Q

Where does the 10% of interstitial fluid go since it cannot reenter the blood capillary?

A

The lymph capillaries pick up the fluid (now called lymph). It is sent into the larger lymphatic vessels, where it goes through one or more lymph nodes to be filtered. Then, the lymphatic system deposits its lymph into one of the two subclavian veins in the shoulders.

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14
Q

How does the lymphatic system maintain fluid balance?

A

It picks up the excess interstitial fluid in the tissues and returns it to the circulatory system.

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15
Q

Lacteals

A

Specialized lymph capillaries in the lining of the small intestine that collect fats absorbed by the small intestine during the digestive process.

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16
Q

Chyle

A

Lymph of the lacteals that has absorbed fat and taken on a milky-white color.

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17
Q

How do fats get into the circulatory system?

A

Lacteals collect fat and turn lymph into chyle. The chyle is then returned to the bloodstream at the left subclavian vein.

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18
Q

Immunological defense

A

The process by which the body protects itself from pathogenic invaders such as bacteria, fungi, parasites, and foreign substances.

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19
Q

Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)

A

Concentrations of lymphatic tissue without a connective tissue capsule.

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20
Q

Where is MALT located and why is that important?

A

MALT is located deep to the mucous membranes of the respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive systems. These membranes line passages that open to the outside of the body and are therefore prone to infection by foreign invaders. MALT is strategically located to intercept such invaders.

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21
Q

Diffuse lymphatic tissue

A

Scattered lymphocytes, macrophages, and other cells found deep to mucous membranes. The least-organized form of MALT.

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22
Q

Where is diffuse lymphatic tissue usually found?

A

Besides its location deep to mucous membranes, is is found around lymph nodules and in the spleen.

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23
Q

Lymph nodules

A

Lymphatic tissue arranged into compact, somewhat spherical structures, but without a capsule.

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24
Q

Name the lymphoid nodules that form a protective ring around the throat.

A

The palatine tonsils (located on each side of the throat), the lingual tonsils (located at the base of the tongue), and the adenoids (located in the nasopharynx).

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25
Peyer's patches
Similar to tonsils, they are groups of lymphocytes in lymph nodules that are in the last third of the small intestine and in the vermiform appendix. They prevent the friendly bacteria that inhabit the large intestine from stirring up trouble in the small intestine.
26
Germinal centers of the lymph node
Centers formed by lymph nodules in a lymph node where rapid mitosis of lymphocytes can take place in response to a foreign invader found in the lymph.
27
What are the three main functions of lymph nodes?
1. They test and monitor the blood through samples of blood plasma. 2. If the sample is rife with foreign invaders, the nodes activate macrophages and lymphocytes to destroy them. 3. They filter the lymph they have so clean lymph is returned to the blood.
28
What is the white pulp of the spleen composed of?
The white pulp is composed of diffuse lymphatic tissue and lymph nodules that surround the arteries that enter the spleen.
29
What is the red pulp of the spleen composed of?
The red pulp is made up of specialized veins with reticular fibers. They receive blood that was in the capillaries of the spleen.
30
How does the spleen filter the blood?
As the blood passes through the white pulp of the spleen, foreign invaders stimulate a response from the diffuse lymphatic tissue or the lymph nodules.
31
How does the spleen clear the blood of worn-out erythrocytes?
As the blood leaves the spleen through the veins, it passes through the red pulp. Old red blood cells are stiff, and their membranes break as they go through the reticular fibers of the red pulp. Macrophages in the red pulp engage in phagocytosis to remove the old blood cells.
32
How does the spleen act as a reservoir for oxygen-rich blood?
The spleen holds more blood than it needs. If the body detects blood loss due to hemorrhage, the sympathetic division of the ANS stimulates the smooth muscle in the spleen's capsule to contract and push the backup supply of blood into the bloodstream to compensate for the blood loss.
33
What are the three primary functions of the spleen?
1. It filters the blood. 2. It clears the blood of old erythrocytes. 3. It acts as a reservoir for oxygen-rich blood in the case of blood loss.
34
How does the thymus gland change as a person matures?
When a person is young, the gland grows and is mostly made of lymphatic tissue. After puberty, it gradually decreases in size, becoming mostly fibrous and fatty tissue in old age.
35
Thymic education
Pre-T lymphocytes leave the red bone marrow (where they were made) and and travel to the thymus. Thymic education is the maturation process that turns beneficial pre-T lymphocytes into T lymphocytes and eliminates detrimental pre-T lymphocytes.
36
Pathogenic bacteria
Harmless bacteria that do no damage and may even benefit the body, but also give you sinus infections, infected cuts, etc.
37
Pathogenic fungi
Most of the pathogenic fungi the immune system works against are the single-celled fungi commonly called yeast. Pathogenic yeast can cause athlete's foot or thrush on the tongue.
38
Parasites
Invaders of the body such as pinworms, roundworms, and tapeworms.
39
Viruses
Information-containing units of either DNA or RNA that are wrapped in a protein coat. Viruses invade a cell to hijack its machinery to reproduce itself, rupturing the cell in the process.
40
Cancer
Cells of the body that have been genetically damaged and can no longer control their functions. Instead, they perform uncontrolled mitosis which forms cancerous tumors.
41
Toxins
Chemicals that are neither cells nor viruses; they are just harmful chemicals to the body. Example: Botulism toxin, which is produced by anaerobic bacteria in improperly canned foods.
42
Innate immunity
An immune response that is the same regardless of the pathogen or toxin encountered (Also called nonspecific immunity).
43
Acquired immunity
An immune response targeted at a specific pathogen or toxin after exposure (Also called specific or adaptive immunity).
44
How does the skin provide non-specific immune defense?
1. The keratin in skin cells makes skin waterproof, allowing the skin to act as a barrier and keep foreign invaders out of the body. 2. Sweat washes the surface of the skin and lowers the pH, which inhibits the growth and activity of many pathogens. 3. Sebaceous glands secrete oil, which contains antibacterial substances.
45
How do the epithelial tissues, such as those found in the sinuses and trachea, play a role in nonspecific immunity?
They secrete mucus. This mucus traps and catches microorganisms. After the pathogens have been caught, cilia that line the mucus-producing epithelium beat and move the mucus toward the mouth or nose. We can then blow our nose, cough, or swallow the mucus to be rid of it.
46
Gastric juice
The very acidic juice of the stomach. It kills any harmful pathogens that come in contact with it.
47
How do tears provide nonspecific immunity?
Tears contain an enzyme called lysozyme. This enzyme breaks down the cell walls of many bacteria. The tears bathe the eye in lysozyme, killing the bacteria which try to infect it.
48
How is urine a part of the body's nonspecific immunity?
It washes out the urinary tract, a point of potential infection.
49
How are symbiotic organisms a part of the body's nonspecific immunity?
There are a host of symbiotic organisms throughout the body. Bacteria in the large intestine produce vitamin K, and in return, the body provides food for them and a place to live, for example. The bacteria flourish in the intestines, and their populations can crowd out pathogenic bacteria. In addition, symbiotic bacteria and fungi that live on the skin and digest the sweat produce lactic acid, which inhibits pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
50
Complement
A series of multiple plasma proteins activated by foreign cells or antibodies to those cells. They lyse bacteria, promote phagocytosis, and promote inflammation.
51
Interferon
Proteins secreted by cells infected with a virus. These proteins do not save the infected cell, but they stimulate nearby cells to strengthen themselves against a viral invasion.
52
Where do the plasma proteins of complement come from?
The liver makes them and puts them into the blood. They stay inactive until something triggers them, such as a foreign invader or the presence of antibodies bound to antigens.
53
What are the functions of the plasma proteins in complement?
1. They can lyse bacteria, meaning they punch a hole in the plasma membrane and cause the bacterium's components to leak out and kill it. 2. They attract phagocytic cells to destroy the ruptured bacterium. 3. They promote inflammation, which signals more disease-fighting mechanisms to help.
54
Where is interferon produced?
It is produced by individual cells that have been infected by a virus and are on the verge of death.
55
What causes inflammation?
Basophils and similar cells called mast cells, which are found deep to the skin release histamines prostaglandins, and leukotrienes. These chemicals stimulate vasodilation and increase blood flow.
56
Vasodilation
Blood vessels enlarge and capillaries become more porous.
57
Pyrogens
Chemicals that promote fever by acting on the hypothalamus.
58
What benefits does an increased body temperature bring against an infection?
1. Since chemicals reactions speed up with increasing temperature, a fever speeds up the immune response. 2. The mitosis of the white blood cells goes faster, increasing its population. 3. Inflammatory chemicals are made faster. 4. A higher temperature is inhibitory to the invading microorganism.
59
What are the two types of acquired immunity?
Humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity.
60
Humoral immunity
Acquired immunity provided by antibodies in the blood plasma.
61
Cell-mediated immunity
Acquired immunity provided by T lymphocytes.
62
B lymphocytes or B cells
Lymphocytes that produce antibodies and are responsible for humoral immunity.
63
Describe the basic structure of an antibody.
Antibodies are made of four polypeptide chains: two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains arranged in a Y shape.
64
Variable regions of the antibody
The two tips of the "Y" of an antibody that are the point at which the antibody binds to the antigen. They vary from one antibody to the next. Also known as antigen binding sites.
65
What does the constant region of an antibody tell us about it?
The characteristics of the constant region determine which of the five classes of antibody it belongs to and how the antibody will fight antigens.
66
What are the five basic classes of the constant region of an antibody?
IgG, IgM, IgA, IgE, and IgD.
67
How do IgG antibodies work?
The most common type of antibody, they help promote phagocytosis. They bind to the antigen with their variable regions and then bind to macrophages with their constant region. Macrophages then engulf the antigen.
68
How do IgM antibodies work?
The largest of the antibodies, they are formed from five Y-shaped subunits. They bind antigens together with their variable regions and then use their constant regions to activate complement proteins.
69
How do IgA antibodies work?
They are secreted antibodies that look like two IgGs bonded together at the stems of the Y's. They are found in saliva, tears, mucous membranes, and in breast milk to provide immunity to an infant.
70
How do IgE antibodies work?
They help initiate the inflammatory response by attaching to an antigen with their variable region. Next, they attach to a basophil with their constant region, stimulating the basophil to release inflammatory agents.
71
How do IgD antibodies work?
They inactivate antigens by simply binding to them.
72
What are the five ways antibodies can fight antigens?
1. Bind directly to the antigen. 2. Bind the antigens together in groups. 3. Activate complement. 4. Stimulate phagocytosis. 5. Stimulate inflammation.
73
Primary response
The first exposure of the body to a certain pathogen. This response fights the infection and produces memory B cells.
74
Secondary response
A response produced by the memory B cells if a pathogen reinfects the body.
75
The major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
The collection of 20 specific glycoproteins that exist on the cell membrane of every cell in the body.
76
What determines the structure of the MHC?
20 genes in the DNA, each of which has more than 50 alleles.
77
Where does cell-mediated immunity come from?
This kind of immunity comes from the action of T lymphocytes (T cells).
78
How are the antigen receptors of the T cell different from those of the B cell?
T cell receptors are not associated with antibodies. Instead, they are attached directly to the surface of the T cell, and they allow it to recognize molecules that are on the plasma membranes of other cells. This helps the T cells distinguish between cells that belong in the body and cells that do not.
79
What type of diseases do T cells tend to fight? (cell-mediated immunity)
Diseases that are caused by pathogens that invade cells, such as viruses and intracellular bacteria.
80
How do the T cels know when pathogens are inside another cell?
When a cell has been invaded, it produces MHC proteins that are not a part of the normal proteins for the body's cells. This makes the cell look foreign to the T cells, and they react.
81
What are the two basic kinds of effector T cells?
Cytotoxic T cells and helper T cells.
82
What do cytotoxic T cells do?
They recognize, bind to, and destroy foreign cells (or infected cells) by puncturing them and causing them to lyse.
83
What do helper T cells do?
They stimulate the activities of both B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
84
What does the delayed hypersensitivity T cell do?
It responds to antigens by releasing chemicals that promote inflammation. It also promotes phagocytosis by attracting macrophages through chemotaxis. These cells are active in allergic reactions.
85
What are the four basic ways the body can acquire immunity?
Active natural immunity, active artificial immunity, passive natural immunity, and passive artificial immunity.
86
Summarize active natural immunity.
This is acquired immunity that comes from being exposed to a pathogen the body must fight off. It is long-lasting because the B cells continue to produce antibodies, and memory cells will be activated if you are again exposed to the same pathogen.
87
Summarize active artificial immunity.
This is the immunity the body receives from a vaccine. The vaccine causes the body to react and form memory B cells or T cells. It is long-lasting.
88
Summarize passive natural immunity.
This type of acquired immunity only occurs between mother and baby. IgG antibodies travel across the placenta during pregnancy and provide the unborn baby with the same immunity of the mother.
89
Summarize passive artificial immunity.
In this situation, a different individual is exposed to a particular pathogen and thus creates antibodies. Those antibodies are then removed from the individual via blood donation and transferred to someone else. This provides immunity to the pathogen, but it is short-lived.
90
Autoimmunity
In autoimmunity, the body cannot differentiate between the MHC of its own cells and that of others and begins to attack its own cells.

Human Biology (16 decks)

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