Module 2 Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
Long term memory
A
continuous storage of info; capacity is unlimited
2
Q
flashbulb memory
A
detailed/ vivid recollections of emotionally significant events
3
Q
What are memory enhancing strategies for?
A
To help info go from STM to LTM
4
Q
Rehearsal
A
Conscious repetition of info to be remembered
5
Q
Chunking
A
Organize info into manageable chunks
6
Q
Elaborative rehearsal
A
Technique in which you think about the meaning of new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in memory; involves linking info to knowledge already stored and repeating the info
7
Q
Mnemonic devices
A
Memory aids that help us organize info for encoding; helpful when we want to recall larger bits of info (steps, stages, etc.)
8
Q
How to study effectively
A
- Use elaborate rehearsal
- Apply self reference effects: make material personally meaningful, write out definitions
- Use distributed practice
- Rehearse; study in spaced, organized sessions
- Be aware of interference; study during quiet time
- Keep moving
- Get sleep
- Make use of mnemonic devices
9
Q
Forgetting
A
Loss of info from LTM
10
Q
Memory
A
Process that allows us to record, store, and retrieve experiences and info
11
Q
Encoding
A
Active process of recording info into memory
12
Q
Automatic processing
A
Encoding details like time, space, and frequency (w/out conscious awareness)
13
Q
Effortful processing
A
Processing that requires a lot of work and attention
14
Q
Semantic encoding
A
Encoding of words and their meaning
15
Q
Visual encoding
A
Encoding of images
16
Q
Acoustic encoding
A
Encoding of sounds (alphabet or old song)
17
Q
Spacing effect
A
Remember more when practice is spread out instead of massed together
18
Q
Recoding
A
Taking info from the form it was given to us and converting it in a way that makes sense to us
19
Q
Storage
A
Creation of permanent record of info
20
Q
Three stages of storage
A
Sensory memory, short term memory, and long term memory
21
Q
Baddeley and Hitch model
A
Computer visuals
22
Q
Atkinson and Shiffrins model
A
3 stages of memory storage
23
Q
Sensory memory
A
Holds stimuli from environment (light, sound, taste) for a couple seconds; fades quickly and discards things we don’t find important
24
Q
Short term memory
A
Temporary storage that processes incoming sensory memory; hold max @20sec, 5-9items
25
Working memory
Part of STM; limited capacity system that temporarily stored and processes info
26
Active rehearsal
Repeating info needed
27
semantic networks
memories are organized in ____; concepts or categories of linguistic info, images, ideas, memories
28
Explicit memory
type of LTM; (aka declarative) conscious recall of facts and events
29
Episodic memory
type of LTM + explicit; memory for personal experiences
30
semantic memory
type of LTM + explicit; memory for general factual knowledge
31
implicit memory
memory in which behavior is affected by prior experiences even though no conscious recollection of experience occurs
32
procedural memory
type of LTM + implicit; memory for skills and action
33
self reference effect
the tendency for an individual to have better memory for info that relates to oneself
34
priming
activation of info memory that then affects behavior and memory with new info
35
memory consolidation
active rehearsal to move info from STM to LTM
36
retrieval
act if getting info out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness
37
encoding specificity principle
the hypothesis that a retrieval cue will be effective to the extent that info encoded from the cue overlaps or matches info in the engram or memory trace (context-dependent memory - easier to remember when in same environment where encoded)
38
recall
accessing info w/out cues
39
state dependent memory
memory enhanced when internal state at encoding matches internal state at retrieval
40
serial position effect
order and position of info falls has impact on how you remember
41
primacy effect
individuals tendency to better remember the 1st piece of info they encounter than info still being received
42
recognition
identifying previously learned info after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue
43
relearning
learning new info that was previously learned
44
reconstruction
memory is a ____, recreated during each retrieval from scattered connections in our brains
45
arousal theory
strong emotion trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences from weaker memories
46
engram
physical trace of memory
47
equipotentiality hypothesis
some parts of the brain can take over for damaged parts in forming and storing memories
48
amygdala
main job is to regulate emotions (fear, aggression, etc.); involved in memory consolidation
49
hippocampus
part of the brain involved in normal recognition memory and spatial memory; deals with explicit memories
50
cerebellum and prefrontal cortex
can create implicit memories, even with the damage from explicit area
51
amnesia
loss of LTM that occurs as a result of disease, physical trauma and psychological trauma ;
52
anterograde
cannot remember new info; most people have of the two. caused by another brain injury; Hippocampus usually affected --> suggests that damage has been done has resulted in the inability to transfer from STM to LTM
53
retrograde amnesia
loss of memory for events that occurred prior to the trauma; cannot remember some or all events of their past
54
encoding failure
When memory loss happens before the actual memory process begins; In order to remember something, we must pay attention to the details and actively work to process the information through effortful encoding)
55
memory errors - forgetting
Transience: memories can fade over time
Absentmindedness: forgetting caused by lapse in attention
Blocking: accessibility of info is temporarily blocked (aka tip of the tongue phenomenon)
56
memory errors - distortion
Misattribution: when source of info is confused
Suggestibility: false memories come from someone else
Bias: memories distorted by current belief system
Stereotypical bias: involves race or gender
Egocentric bias: involves enhancing our emotions of the past (self enhancing manner)
Hindsight bias: we think an outcome is inevitable after the fact (aka I knew it all along phenomenon)
57
memory error - intrusion
Persistence: inability to forget undesirable memories
58
proactive interference
when old information hinders the recall of newly learned information
59
retroactive interference
when information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information
60
latent learning
form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; occurs w/out any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned (not observable until there is a reason to demonstrate)
61
cognitive map
mental picture of the layout of a space
62
social learning theory
emphasizes the importance of observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of others. ____ considers how both environmental and cognitive factors interact to influence human learning and behavior
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live model
model that demonstrates a behavior in person
64
verbal model
instructional model does not perform the behavior, but explains or describes the behavior
65
symbolic
model can be fictional characters or real people who demonstrate behaviors in books, movies, tv shows, video games, or internet sources
66
observational learning
learning behavior by imitating others
67
steps in modeling processes
attention, retention, reproduction, motivation
68
vicarious reinforcement
if model reinforced for behavior, you are more likely to copy it
69
vicarious punishment
if model is punished for behavior, you’re less likely to be motivated to copy it
70
classical conditioning
process by which we learn to associate stimuli and consequently to anticipate events
71
instincts
innate behaviors that are triggered by a broader range of events (more complex patterns of behavior, involve movement of the organism as a whole, and involve brain centers
72
associative learning
occurs when an organism makes the connection between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
73
acquisition
initial period of learning (connecting neutral stimulus and unconditioned stimulus
74
taste aversion
type of conditioning in which an interval of several hours may pass between the CS (something ingested) and the unconditioned stimulus (nausea or illness); being conditioned to be averse a food after a single unpleasant experience
75
extinction
the decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer presented with the conditioned stimulus
76
discrimination
when an orgnaism learns to repsond differently to various stimuli that are similar
77
generalization
when an organism demonstrated the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
78
spontaneous recovery
return of a previously extinguished conditioned response
79
conditioned response
response caused by the conditioned stimulus
80
conditioned stimulus (CS):
stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
81
higher-order conditioning:
(also, second-order conditioning) using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
82
neutral stimulus (NS):
stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
83
unconditioned response (UCR):
natural (unlearned) behavior to a given stimulus
84
unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
stimulus that elicits a reflexive response
85
operant conditioning
Organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences
86
law of effect
behaviors that are followed by consequences that are satisfying to the organism are more likely to be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated
87
Negative reinforcement:
undesirable stimulus is removed to increase a behavior
which go “beep, beep, beep” until you fasten your seatbelt. The annoying sound stops when you exhibit the desired behavior, increasing the likelihood that you will buckle up in the future)
88
positive reinforcement;
desirable stimulus is added to increase a behavior (rewarding child for cleaning his room)
89
Positive punishment:
add an undesirable stimulus to decrease a behavior (scolding student to stop texting in class)
90
Negative punishment:
remove pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (misbehaving child gets toy take away)
91
shaping
Reward successive approximations of a target behavior; Needed because it is extremely unlikely that an organism will display anything but the simplest behaviors spontaneously
92
Primary reinforcers
: water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, pleasure and touch
93
Secondary reinforcers:
has no inherent value and only has reinforcing qualities when linked w a primary enforcer (praise linked to affection)
94
Continuous reinforcement:
organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior
Reinforcement schedule is the quickest way to teach someone a behavior
95
Partial reinforcement:
aka intermittent reinforcement, person or animal does not get reinforced every time they perform the behavior
96
Fixed interval reinforcement schedule:
when behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
Can lead to higher quality output
97
Variable interval reinforcement schedule:
organism gets the reinforcement based on varying amounts of time, which is unpredictable
98
Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule:
set number of responses that must occur before the behavior is rewarded (getting paid after doing something)
Better suited to optimize the quantity of output
99
Variable ratio reinforcement schedule:
number of responses needed for a reward varies
Most powerful partial reinforcement schedule
100
cognitive psychology
field of psychology dedicated to examining how people think
Attempts to explain how and why we think the way we do by studying interactions among human thinking, emotion, creativity, language, and problem solving, in addition to ___ processes
101
category
set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way
Ex. trucks, wireless devices, weddings, psychopaths, trout
102
concepts
categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories, such as life experiences
103
prototypes
best example or representation of a concept
Ex. ___for a dog could be what your first dog was
104
natural concepts
created naturally through experiences and can be developed from either direct or indirect experiences
105
direct experience
natural concept that involves being in involved
106
indirect inexperience
natural concept that involves seeing it but not being involved
107
artificial concept
concept that is defined by specific set of characteristics
ex. geometric shapes
Math formulas are ___ concepts defined by specific characteristics that are always the same
108
schemata
mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts; Method of organizing information that allows the brain to work more efficiently
109
schema
When a ___ is activated, the brain makes immediate assumptions about the person or object being observed
110
role schema
makes assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave
ex. Thinking a firefighter is brave, selfless, community oriented despite not knowing the person
111
event schema
aka cognitive script; set of behaviors that can feel like a routine
ex. Hand-shaking to greet in US but bumping fists in Belize
automatic → difficult to change
112
cognition
thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgment, and memory
113
trial and error
continue to try different solutions until you solve your problem (commonly used)
114
algorithm
problem solving formula that provides you with step by step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome; problem solving formula that provides you with step by step instructions used to achieve a desired outcome
115
heuristic
general problem solving framework; mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems; not always best method
116
working backwards
useful heuristic in which you begin solving the problem by focusing on the end result
117
problem-solving strategy
method for solving problems
118
mental set
where you persist in approaching the problem in a way that has worked in the past but is clearly not working now
119
functional fixedness
type of mental set where you cannot perceive an object being used for something other than what is was designed for
120
anchoring bias
occurs when you focus on one piece of information when making adhesion or solving a problem; ex. So focused on the amount of money you are willing to spend that you may not recognize what kinds of homes are available at that price point
121
confirmation bias
tendency to focus on information that confirms your existing beliefs
122
hindsight bias
leads you to believe that the event you just experienced was predictable, even though it really wasn’t (knew it all along phenomenon)
123
Representative bias:
faulty way of thinking; unintentionally stereotype someone or something
124
Availability heuristic:
heuristic in which you make a decision based on an example, information, or recent experience that is readily available to you, even though it may not be the best example to inform your decision
125
Direct replication:
conduct exactly the same study again, usually with new participants from the same population as the original study. Successful replication would produce results similar to those in the original study
126
Systematic replication:
conduct a study that is similar to the original one, but using slightly different methods or stimuli
127
Conceptual replication:
conduct a very different study that still tests the original idea.
128
Crystallized intelligence
: characterized as acquired knowledge and ability to retrieve it
Using when you learn, recall, and remember information
129
Fluid intelligence:
encompasses the ability to see complex relationships and solve problems
ex. Finding your way home from an unfamiliar route
130
Practical intelligence:
compared to street smarts. Finding solutions that work in your everyday life by applying knowledge based on your experiences (aka street smarts)
131
analytical intelligence:
closely aligned with academic problem solving and computations
Demonstrated by the ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and contrast
132
Creative intelligence:
marked by inviting or imagining a solution to a problem or situation
Finding a new solution to an unexpected problem
133
cultural intelligence:
ability with which people can understand and relate to those in another culture
134
emotional intelligence:
ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others
135
Multiple Intelligences Theory:
Gardner’s theory that each person possesses at least eight types of intelligence
1. linguistic (language - poet, teacher, etc.)
2. logical-mathematical (numerical patterns - scientist, mathematician)
3. musical (understand rhythm, tone - composer)
4. bodily kinesthetic (ability to control movement - athlete, dancer, etc.)
5. spatial (can perceive relation between objects + how they move in space - choreographer, architect)
6. Interpersonal (understand emotional states - counselor)
7. naturalist (can appreciate natural world - biologist, environmentalists)
8. intrapersonal (access personal feelings and motivations - key component of personal success over time)
136
triarchic theory of intelligence:
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative, and analytical
137
1st criteria of creativity
originality; idea must have a low probability and be unique
138
2nd criteria of creativity
usefulness; idea should be valuable or work→ solution must solve the problem
139
3rd criteria of creativity:
surprise; idea must be surprising or at least not obvious
140
Remote Associates Test (RAT):
introduced by Mednick; believed that the creative process requires the ability to associate ideas that are considered very far apart conceptually
141
creativity
ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities
142
Divergent thinking:
comes up with multiple possibilities that might vary greatly in usefulness
143
Convergent thinking
: converges on the single best answer or solution
144
IQ
describes a score earned on a test designed to measure intelligence
145
Flynn effect:
observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation
146
norming:
administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups
147
representative sample:
subset of the population that accurately represents the general population
148
standard deviation:
measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean
149
standardization
: method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent
150
average score of IQ
100
151
learning disabilities
Cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition, particularly language or reading; considered specific neurological impairments rather than global intellectual or developmental diseases --> not related to intelligence
152
intellectual development disorder
1. Mild; 85% of intellectually disabled population; 3rd- to 6th-grade skill level in reading, writing, and math; may be employed and live independently
2. Moderate; 10% of intellectually disabled population; Basic reading and writing skills; functional self-care skills; requires some oversight
3. Severe; 5% of intellectually disabled population; Functional self-care skills; requires oversight of daily environment and activities
4. Profound; <1% of intellectually disabled population; May be able to communicate verbally or nonverbally; requires intensive oversight --> related to intelligence
153
Dysgraphia:
have a learning disability that results in a struggle to write legibly; task of writing with a pen is extremely challenging
154
dyslexia
Most common learning disability in children
Exhibits an inability to correctly process letters
Neurological mechanism for sound processing does not work properly in someone with ___
Children may not understand sound-letter correspondence
155
Dyscalculia
Difficulty in learning or comprehending arithmetic
Struggling to memorize math facts, organize numbers, or full differentiate between numerals, math symbols, and written numbers
156
range of reaction:
each person’s response to the environment is unique based on their genetic make-up; Genetic potential is a fixed quantity but whether you can reach your full potential is dependent upon the environmental stimulation you experience, especially in childhood
