Module 3 Flashcards
(198 cards)
1
Q
Axon
A
major extension of the soma
2
Q
Dendrite
A
branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals from other neurons
3
Q
Glial cell
A
nervous system cell that provides physical and metabolic support to neurons, including neuronal insulation and communication, and nutrient and waste transport
(More than neurons)
4
Q
Myelin sheath
A
fatty substance that insulates axons
5
Q
Neuron
A
cells in the nervous system that act as interconnected information processors, which are essential for all of the tasks of the nervous system
6
Q
Neurotransmitter
A
chemical messenger of the nervous system
7
Q
Receptor
A
protein on the cell surface where neurotransmitters attach
8
Q
Semipermeable membrane
A
cell membrane that allows smaller molecules or molecules without an electrical charge to pass through it, while stopping larger or highly charged molecules
9
Q
Soma
A
Cell body
10
Q
Synapse
A
small gap between two neurons where communication occurs
11
Q
Synapse vesicles
A
storage site for neurotransmitters
12
Q
action potential:
A
electrical signal that moves down the neuron’s axon; when ___ reaches terminal buttons it releases neurotransmitters into synapse
13
Q
agonist
A
drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter
14
Q
all or none
A
phenomenon that incoming signal from another neuron is either sufficient or insufficient to reach the threshold of excitation
15
Q
antagonist
A
drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a given neurotransmitter
16
Q
biological perspective
A
view that psychological disorders like depression and schizophrenia are associated with imbalances in one or more neurotransmitter systems
17
Q
depolarizarion
A
when a cell’s charge becomes positive, or less negative
18
Q
hyperpolarizarion
A
when a cell’s charge becomes more negative than its resting potential
19
Q
membrane potential
A
difference in charge across the neuronal membrane
20
Q
psychotrophic medication
A
drugs that treat psychiatric symptoms by restoring neurotransmitter balance
21
Q
resting potential
A
the state of readiness of a neuron membrane’s potential between signals
22
Q
reuptake
A
neurotransmitter is pumped back into the neuron that released it
23
Q
terminal button
A
axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles
24
Q
threshold of extinction
A
level of charge in the membrane that causes the neuron to become active
25
central nervous system
brain and spinal cord; part of electrochemical system
26
peripheral nervous system
Made up of thick bundles of axons called nerves which carry messages to and from between the CNS and the muscles, organs, and senses in the periphery of the body; somatic and automatic nervous system
27
somatic nervous system
associated with activities traditionally thought of as conscious or voluntary; Involved in the relay of sensory and motor information (neurons) to and from the CNS
28
afferent
Sensory neurons carry sensory info to the CNS and are ____ fibers (moving towards)
29
efferent
Motor neurons carry instructions from the CNS to the muscles and are ___ fibers (moving away from)
30
automatic nervous system
controls our internal organs and glands and is generally considered to be outside the realm of voluntary control; two divisions
31
sympathetic nervous system
involved in preparing the body for stress-related activities; Activated when we are faced with stressful or high-arousal situations. The activity of this system was adaptive for our ancestors, increasing their chances of survival; fight or flight
32
fight or flight
allows the body access to energy reserves and heightened sensory capacity so that it might fight off a threat or run away to safety
33
parasympathetic nervous system
associated with returning the body to routine, day to day operations
34
homeostasis
state of equilibrium—biological conditions, such as body temperature, are maintained at optimal levels
35
hormones
chemical messengers that must bind to a receptor and are secreted into the bloodstream (effects are widespread)
36
endocrine system
consists of a series of glands that produce chemical substances called hormones
37
pituitary gland
descends from hypothalamus at base of the brain and acts in close association with; Often called master gland because its messenger hormones control all the the other glands in the endocrine system
Secretes growth hormones, endorphins for pain relief, and a number of key hormones that regulate fluid levels in the body
38
thyroid gland
releases hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, and appetite
39
adrenal gland
sits atop kidneys and secretes hormones involved in stress response like epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline)
40
pancreas
internal organ that secretes hormones that regulate blood sugar levels (insulin and glucagon;
41
diabetes
People who suffer from ___do not produce enough insulin; therefore, they must take medications that stimulate or replace insulin production
42
female gonads
Secrete estrogen and progesterone
43
male gonads
Secrete androgens (like testosterone)
44
gonads
secrete sexual hormones; important in reproduction, and medicate both sexual motivation and behavior
45
brain
Bilateral structure separated into distinct lobes with billions of interconnected neurons and glia
46
spinal cord
Connects brain to the outside world
Relay station; routes messages to and from brain, but also has its own system of automatic processes called reflexes
47
neuroplasticity
refers to how nervous system can adapt and change; can involve creation of new synapses, pruning of synapses that are no longer used, changes in glial cells, and even the birth of new neurons
48
cerebral cortex
surface of the brain; characterized by a distinctive pattern of folds or bumps; associated with higher level processes such as consciousness, thought, emotion, reasoning, language, and memory
49
gyri
patterns of folds or bumps of brain
50
sulci
grooves in brain
51
longitudinal fissure
most prominent sulci; deep groove that separates the brain into two halves or hemispheres
52
left hemisphere
controls the right side of the body; been shown to be superior for forming associations in memory, selective attention, and positive emotions
53
right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body
been shown to be superior in pitch perception, arousal, and negative emotions
54
corpus callosum
thick band of neural fibers connecting the brain’s two hemispheres
55
laterization
concept that each hemisphere of the brain is associated with specialized functions
56
forebrain
contains cerebral cortex, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and the limbic system
57
frontal lobe
located in the forward part of the brain, extending back to a fissure called the central sulcus; Involved in reasoning, motor control, emotion, and language
Contains motor cortex
prefrontal cortex
58
broca's area
essential for language production; Suffer damage to this area will have difficulty producing language of any form
59
primary motor cortex
frontal lobe; strip running along the side of the brain is in charge of voluntary movements like waving goodbye, wiggling your eyebrows, and kissing
60
parietal lobe
located immediately behind the frontal lobe; involved in processing info from the body’s senses; contains somatosensory cortex
61
somatosensory cortex
essential for processing sensory information from across the body (touch, temperature, pain)
62
temporal lobe
located on the side of the head; associated with hearing memory, emotion, and some aspects of language; has auditory cortex and Wernicke's area
63
auditory cortex
main area responsible for processing auditory information
64
wernicke's area
important for speech comprehension; damage to this area can produce sensible language but are not able to understand it
65
occipital lobe
located at the back of the brain; contains primary visual cortex (responsible for interpreting incoming visual information)
66
motor cortex
involved in planning and coordinating movements
67
prefrontal cortex
responsible for higher-level cognitive functioning
Broca's and Wernicke's area
68
thalamus
sensory relay for the brain; all sense except smell
69
limbic system
involved in processing both emotion and memory; Sense of smell projects through the _____
three important different structures (hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus)
70
hippocampus
essential structure for learning and memory; Damage to the ____ affects the retention of newer memories, but older memories are still stored, unaffected
71
amygdala
involved in our experience of emotion and in tying emotional meaning to our memories
72
hypothalamus
regulates a number of homeostatic processes (regulation of body temperature, appetite, and blood pressure)
73
midbrain
comprised of structures located deep within the brain, between forebrain and hindbrain (reticular formation, substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA)
74
reticular formation
located in midbrain and extends up to forebrain and down into hindbrain; important in regulating the sleep/wake cycle, arousal, alertness, and motor activity
75
substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area (VTA)
regions contain cell bodies that produce dopamine and are both critical for movement
Degeneration involved in Parkinson’s disease
Involved in mood, reward, and addiction
76
hindbrain
located at the back of the head and looks like an extension to the spinal cord; medulla, pons, cerebellum
77
medulla
controls the autonomic nervous system (breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate
78
pons
serves to connect the hindbrain to the rest of the brain; involved in regulating brain activity during sleep
79
cerebellum
receives messages from muscles, tendons, joints, and structures in our ear to control balance, coordination, movement and motor skills; Thought to be important for processing some types of memories (procedural memory)
80
computerized tomography (CT)
involves taking a number of x-rays of a particular section of a person’s body or brain
81
positron emission tomography (PET)
create pictures of the living active brain (show little detail and cannot pinpoint events precisely in time); injection of tracer, color coded images
82
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
person is placed inside a machine that generates a strong magnetic field; field causes hydrogen atoms in cell’s body to move; When field is turned off, atoms emit electromagnetic signals as they return to original position
83
functional MRI
shows changes in brain activity over time by tracking blood flow and oxygen levels
Provides more detailed images and better accuracy in time
Noninvasive
84
electroencephalography (EEG)
provides a measure of a brain’s electrical activity (brain waves); Such information is especially helpful to researchers studying sleep patterns among individuals with sleep disorders
85
adoption study
a behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents
86
behavioral genetics
the empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behavior
87
heritability coefficient
an easily misinterpreted statistical construct that purports to measure the role of genetics in the explanation of differences among individuals
88
quantitative genetics
scientific and mathematical methods for inferring genetic and environmental processes based on the degree of genetic and environmental similarity among organisms
89
twin studies
a behavior genetic research method that involves comparison of the similarity of identical (monozygotic; MZ) and fraternal (dizygotic; DZ) twins
90
allele
specific version of a gene
91
chromosome
long strand of genetic information
92
DNA
double helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs
93
dominant allele
allele whose phenotype will be expressed in an individual that possesses that allele
94
genetic environmental correlation
view of gene-environment interaction that asserts our genes affect our environment, and our environment influences the expression of our genes
95
genotype
genetic makeup of an individual
96
mutation
sudden, permanent change in a gene
97
phenotype
individual’s inheritable physical characteristics
98
polygenic
multiple genes affecting a given trait
99
recessive allele
allele whose phenotype will be expressed only if an individual is homozygous for that allele
theory of evolution by natural selection:
100
epigenome
a dynamic layer of information associated with DNA that differs between individuals and can be altered through various experiences and environments
101
epigenetics
study of gene-environment interactions, such as how the same genotype leads to different phenotypes
102
gene
sequence of DNA that controls or partially controls physical characteristics
103
range of reaction
asserts our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where in that range we will fall
104
fixed mindset
people that think this way don’t really believe they can learn new things
105
growth mindset
think of talent as something that is developed through effort. They understand that any of us can be good at anything as long as we’re willing to put in the time to build our skills in that area.
106
consciousness
awareness of internal (pain, hunger, thirst) and external (light from seeing sun etc.) stimuli
107
wakefulness
characterized by high levels of sensory awareness, thought, and behavior
108
biological rhythm
internal rhythms of biological activity; recurring cyclical pattern of bodily changes
109
circadian rhythm
biological rhythms that takes place over a period of about 24hr
110
biological clock
innate timing device, comprised of specific molecules (proteins) that interact in cells throughout the body; every organ and tissue and controlled by hypothalamus
111
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
brain’s clock mechanism is located in an area of the hypothalamus
112
chronotype
individual differences in circadian patterns of activity indicating a propensity to sleep at a certain time
113
melatonin
hormone secreted by the endocrine gland that serves as an important regulator of the sleep-wake cycle; released by pineal gland
114
insomnia
consistent difficulty in falling or staying asleep for at least three nights a week over a month’s time
115
jet lag
collection of symptoms brought on by travel from one time zone to another that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment
116
rotating shift work
work schedule that changes from early to late on a daily or weekly basis
117
sleep debt
result of insufficient sleep on a chronic basis
118
depressant
drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity (agonist of GABA)
119
physical dependence
involves changes in normal bodily functions—the user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use
120
physiological dependence
emotional, rather than physical, need for the drug and may use the drug to relieve ____ distress
121
tolerance
linked to physiological dependence, and it occurs when a person requires more and more drugs to achieve effects previously experienced at lower doses. ____ can cause the user to increase the amount of drug used to a dangerous level—even to the point of overdose and death
122
drug withdrawal
variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug
123
psychoactive drugs
occur through their interactions with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems;
An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system,
antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity
124
stimulants
drugs that tend to increase overall levels of neural activity. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system
(cocaine, amphetamines, methamphetamine), cathinones (i.e., bath salts), MDMA (ecstasy), nicotine, and caffeine
125
methamphetamine
type of amphetamine that can be made from pseudoephedrine, an over-the-counter drug; widely manufactured and abused
126
opioid
category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine
have analgesic properties; that is, they decrease pain (agonist)
127
codeine
opiate with relatively low potency often prescribed for minor pain
128
methadone
synthetic opioid that is less euphorigenic than heroin and similar drugs; used to manage withdrawal symptoms in opiate users
129
hallucigen
class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences; marijuana, psilocybin (shrooms), mescaline (peyote), and LSD (can be agonist or antagonists)
130
hypnosis
state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli
131
meditation
clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus
132
evolutionary psychology
discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result of natural selection
133
sleep rebound
sleep-deprived individuals will experience longer sleep latencies during subsequent opportunities for sleep
134
beta waves
high frequency, low amplitude (awake, alert)
135
alpha waves
lower frequency, higher amplitude, more rhythmic
136
stage 1
transitional phase that occurs between wakefulness and sleep, the period during which we drift off to sleep. During this time, there is a slowdown in both the rates of respiration and heartbeat; sleep involves a marked decrease in both overall muscle tension and core body temperature
Alpha and beta waves
137
stage 2
the body into a state of deep relaxation; Theta waves still dominate the activity of the brain, but they are interrupted by brief bursts of activity known as sleep spindles
138
sleep spindle
rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory
139
k-complex
in stage 2; very high amplitude pattern of brain activity that may in some cases occur in response to environmental stimuli
140
stage 3
deep sleep or slow-wave sleep because these stages are characterized by low frequency (less than 3 Hz), high amplitude delta waves; heart rate and respiration slow dramatically; High muscle tone and not dreaming \
Typically occurs during the beginning of the sleep stage
141
REM sleep
period of sleep characterized by brain waves very similar to those during wakefulness and by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids; controlled by pons;____ sleep is often referred to as paradoxical sleep because of this combination of high brain activity and lack of muscle tone
142
theta wave
type of low frequency, low amplitude brain wave characteristic of the end of stage 1 sleep
143
delta wave
type of low frequency, high amplitude brain wave characteristic of stage 3 sleep
144
manifest content
actual content or storyline of a dream
145
latent content
hidden meaning of a dream
146
Threat-simulation theory:
suggests that dreaming should be seen as an ancient biological defense mechanism
147
Exception-fulfillment theory:
dreaming serves to discharge emotional arousals (however minor) that haven’t been expressed during the day; practice frees up space in the brain to deal with the emotional arousals of the next day and allows instinctive urges to stay intact
148
Activation-synthesis theory
dreams are electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. The theory posits that humans construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of the nonsensical
149
Continual-activation theory:
proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis. Dreaming and REM sleep are simultaneously controlled by different brain mechanisms. The hypothesis states that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer data from short-term memory to long-term memory through a process called consolidation (not much evidence to support)
150
cataplexy
lack of muscle tone or muscle weakness, and in some cases complete paralysis of the voluntary muscles
151
central sleep apnea
sleep disorder with periods of interrupted breathing due to a disruption in signals sent from the brain that regulate breathing
152
cognitive-behavioral therapy
: psychotherapy that focuses on cognitive processes and problem behaviors that is sometimes used to treat sleep disorders such as insomnia
153
continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP):
device used to treat sleep apnea; includes a mask that fits over the sleeper’s nose and mouth, which is connected to a pump that pumps air into the person’s airways, forcing them to remain open
154
Nacrolepsy
sleep disorder in which the sufferer cannot resist falling to sleep at inopportune times
155
night terror
sleep disorder in which the sleeper experiences a sense of panic and may scream or attempt to escape from the immediate environment
156
obstructive sleep apnea:
sleep disorder defined by episodes when breathing stops during sleep as a result of blockage of the airway
157
parasomnia:
one of a group of sleep disorders characterized by unwanted, disruptive motor activity and/or experiences during sleep
158
REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)
: sleep disorder in which the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur; sleepers have high levels of physical activity during REM sleep, especially during disturbing dreams
159
restless leg syndrome:
sleep disorder in which the sufferer has uncomfortable sensations in the legs when trying to fall asleep that are relieved by moving the legs
160
sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS):
infant (one year old or younger) with no apparent medical condition suddenly dies during sleep
161
sleepwalking
(also, somnambulism) sleep disorder in which the sleeper engages in relatively complex behaviors
162
sleep apnea
sleep disorder defined by episodes during which breathing stops during sleep
163
Amplitude
Height of wave
164
Blind spot
point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field
165
Cornea
transparent covering over the eye
166
Electromagnetic spectrum
all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment
167
Fovea
small indentation in the retina that contains cones
168
Frequency
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
169
Hertz
cycles per second; measure of frequency
170
Iris
colored portion of the eye
171
Lense
curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye
172
Optic chiasm
X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain
173
optic nerve
carries visual information from the retina to the brain
174
photoreceptor
light-detecting cell
175
pupil
small opening in the eye through which light passes
176
Retina
Light sensitive lining of the eye
177
Rod
Specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions
178
Trough
Lowest point of wave
179
Visible spectrum
Portion of electromagnetic spectrum we can see
180
Wavelength
Length of wave from one peak to the next peak
181
Afterimage
Continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
182
Binocular cue
Cue that relies on both eyes
183
Monocular cue
Cue only requires one eye
184
Binocular disparity
Slightly different view of the world that each eye sees
185
Opponent process theory
Color is coded in opponent pairs; black and white, green and red, yellow and blue
186
Synesthesia
Blending of two or more sensory experiences
187
Trichromatic theory of color
Color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones
188
Vestibulo-ocular reflex
Coordination of motion info with visual info that allows you to maintain your gaze on an object while you move
189
Basilar membrane
Thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system
190
Cochlea
Contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system
191
Incus
Middle ear ossicle (anvil)
192
Malleus
Middle ear ossicle: hammer
193
Pinna
Most visible part of the eat
194
Stapes
Middle ear ossicle; stirrup
195
Tympanic membrane
Eardrum
196
Binaural cue
Two eared cue to localize sound
197
Conductive hearing loss
Failure in the vibration of the eardrum or movement of the ossicles
198
Congenital deafness
Deafness from burth
