module 2 Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
(First Law of Geography, Waldo Tobler, 1969)
A
Everything is related to everything else, but near things are more related than distant things.
2
Q
How far apart two points are!
Measure of separation between 2 places
____ is a complex concept and there may be more than one concept
applicable to it.
A
distance
3
Q
conceptual framework that enables one to describe & analyze the distribution of objects in space.
A
SPATIAL LANGUAGE
4
Q
can be measured in terms of process and activity
Depends upon the relative location of points
Can be measured with different yardsticks
A
distance
5
Q
People’s concept of ______are dependent upon both culture
and experience.
A
space and of distance
6
Q
} Framework for things and events
} Container view of space
}___ existed permanently & independently of whether there is any
matter in the space.
} Backdrop or stage setting in which physical phenomena occur.
} Container of all activities
} The extent within which matter is physically extended and objects and events have positions relative to one another
A
space
7
Q
} Container view of space
} Space existed permanently & independently of whether there is any
matter in the space.
} Backdrop or stage setting in which physical phenomena occur.
} Container of all activities
A
(absolute space)
8
Q
types of space
A
} Absolute/Mathematical
space
} Topological space
} Cognitive space
} Activity space
} Personal space
} Public space
} Gendered space
9
Q
Distance between 2 points is the intervening spatial interval between their absolute locations
} Defined by the intersection of cartesian coordinates
} X (east-west direction)
} Y (north-south direction)
A
EUCLIDIAN SPACE
10
Q
} Many surfaces, many geometries, different distance measurements
(deformation)
A
REIMANN SPACE
11
Q
path of shortest distance between two points
A
GEODESICS
12
Q
Shortest distance is not a straight line but a ____ one
A
curved
13
Q
diff types of geometries
A
- 2D plane
- 3D sphere
- 3D saddle
14
Q
} Special case of Reimann space applied to four dimensions (x, y, z, t)
} Space, time and cost conceptualization of movement
A
MINKOWSKI SPACE
15
Q
} Straight-line short paths
} Non-straight-line short paths
} Isotropic surfaces
} Anisotropic surfaces
A
POINT TO POINT DISTANCES
16
Q
} Paths of shortest distance between two points
A
GEODESIC PATHS
17
Q
type of GEOGRAPHIC SURFACES:
A
isotropic
anisotropic
18
Q
movement effort is the same in all directions from every point
A
ISOTROPIC SURFACE
19
Q
Movement effort may vary with direction from any point
A
ANISOTROPIC SURFACE
20
Q
} Shortest path along a straight line between two points
} Metric property of Euclidean space
} Distance between two points i and j is reciprocal
} Dij=dji
A
STRAIGHT-LINE SHORT PATHS
21
Q
} Shortest path between two points is a series of straight lines with different
directional orientations
} Due to obstacles
} Losch – made an analogy to the law of refraction in physics.
} Law of refraction
A
NON-STRAIGHT-LINE SHORT PATHS
22
Q
Shortest path between two points is a series of straight lines with different
______
A
directional orientations
23
Q
} Aggregate measures are needed
} STANDARD DISTANCE
} As the spatial distribution becomes more dispersed, value of standard
distance increases
} Total volume of interaction will increase as the standard distance decreases
A
DISTANCE IN GROUP OF POINTS
24
Q
– represents the average of all distances dij between all possible pairs of points in a spatial distribution
A
STANDARD DISTANCE
25
MEASURES OF DISTANCE
- PHYSICAL MEASURES
- TIME/TEMPORAL MEASURES
- ECONOMIC MEASURES
- PERCEPTUAL MEASURES
26
spatial interval between two points, unusually precise
PHYSICAL DISTANCE
27
calibrated according to a standard system
Euclidean measurement
28
most widely used physical measures
Metric system
29
1,650,763.73 wavelengths of the orange-red radiation of krypton
86
METER
30
distance that an elephant can travel from dawn to dusk
YOJANA
31
8 angulas = ______ (fist with thumb raised) = 125 mm to 167
12 angulas = ______ (distance between tip of thumb and tip of last finger when palm is stretched) = 188 mm to 250 mm
one dhanu musti
1 vitasti
32
} Dependent upon culture
} Distance is frequently measured by the amount of time required to move from
point to point.
} Movement of people affected more by time considerations
TIME/TEMPORAL MEASURES
33
Time distance is a function of:
} Mode of movement
} Density of traffic on route
} Physical environment / surface characteristics
} Man made regulations concerning movement
} Level of technology
} ISOCHRONES
34
time contours, Concentric on isotropic surfaces Typically are
not concentric 5 minute intervals in a CBD (rush hour/not rush hour)
ISOCHRONES
35
} economic distance
} Monetary measure of distance
} Cost of moving depends upon the price of inputs required to make
movement possible over a given physical distance
} Vary between modes and between places
} The monetary costs of movement increase with physical distance
ECONOMIC MEASURES
36
} Cost of moving depends upon the _____ required to make
movement possible over a given physical distance
price of inputs
37
budgetary notion incorporating the amount of energy required to move between two points.
ECONOMIC DISTANCE
38
} spatial perception
} The ability to perceive or otherwise react to the size, distance, or depth
aspects of the environment.
} Affected by biases, prejudices and irrationalities
} Depth perception
} Direction perception
} Distance perception
} Motion perception
PERCEPTUAL MEASURES
39
varying individual ability to be precise with respect to locations and their attributes
spatial perception
40
consists of a relatively small area within which they can
specify relative locations more or less accurately
- Relative locations outside this area tend to be perceived fuzzily.
Terra cognita
41
Spatial perception affects our measure of distance in at least two ways:
} Directional preference
} Stimulus along the route
42
– studied residential preferences in the United States
Gould
43
Consistent directional bias
perceptual measure
44
due to real/imagined qualities associated with a location rather than with direction.
directional preference
45
_______ make distance appear longer than it actually is.
_______ seem to abbreviate physical distance
Monotonous sceneries
Colorful vistas
46
Bodily manifestation of distance perception:
} Physiological response to travel
} Some routes are more stressful than others and are therefore avoided
47
} Psychological representation of places
the real world (information, perception, cognition, recall)
cognitive images
48
A collective image – map or impression – map of a city, a collective picture of what people extract from the physical reality of a city
IMAGE OF THE CITY (Kevin Lynch)
49
5 basic elements of image of the city
1. PATHWAYS
2. DISTRICTS
3. EDGES
4. LANDMARKS
5. NODES
50
– major and minor routes of circulation to move about; the city has a network of major routes and a neighborhood network of minor routes; a building has several main routes which people use to get to it and from it.
PATHWAYS
51
An _______ is a network of pathways for a whole city; the footpaths of a college are pathways for the campus
urban highway network
52
a city is composed of component neighborhoods or ____?; its
center, uptown, midtown, its in-town residential areas, train yards, factory areas, suburbs, college campuses, etc. Sometimes they are distinct in form and extent –
ex. Wall Street area on Manhattan. Sometimes they are considerably mixed in character and do not have distinct limits like the midtown of Manhattan
- areas with identifiable physical or cultural character
DISTRICTS
53
The termination of a district is its _____. Some districts have no distinct ___ at all but gradually taper off and blend into another district. When two
districts are joined at an edge, they form a seam. A narrow park may be a joining seam for two urban neighborhoods.
barriers separating places
EDGES
54
The prominent visual features of the city; some are very large and
are seen at great distances; some are very small and can only be seen up close (e.g. street clock, a fountain, small statue in a park); they help in orienting people in the city and help identify an area; they should be distinct but in harmony with other elements in the setting. They are distinct visual object.
- distinct physical reference point
LANDMARKS
55
a center of activity; distinguished from a landmark by virtue of its active
function; it is a distinct hub of activity. Times Square in New York City is both a landmark and a node.
points and foci for travel
NODES
56
useful in the verification of theory
- isotropic space
map transformation
57
conditioned by perception rather than by actual distances
spatial behavior
58
} distance from the center shrinks proportionally to the logarithm of the real distance
}________ as representation of perceived distance
} Distance decay
} Fisheye/magnification
LOGARITHMIC TRANSFORMATIONS
59
method for multi-scale mapping
Fisheye/magnification
60
continuous connectedness between the points of a figure
Topology
61
elastic; spatial sequence and contiguity of points, lines
and areas is maintained
Topological space
62
} Not scaled
} Sinuosity of the routing is not shown
} Distance perception does not correspond to linear distance but rather is ordinal
More appropriate to the geography of movement
Topological space
63
} a way to externalize the people’s spatial knowledge
} Distance impedes the level of spatial interaction
COMMUNTY MAPPING
64
____ is typically the expense incurred for a product or service being sold by a company.
} The amount of ____ it takes to produce a product can have a direct impact on both the price of the product and the profit earned from its sale.
} Not always monetary
cost
65
the amount a customer is willing to pay for a product or service.
Based on supply and demand
PRICE
66
Transport systems face requirements to increase their capacity and to reduce the ____
costs of mobility
67
corporations and individuals must take decisions about how to route
_______ through the transport system.
passengers or freight
68
rising income and availability of modes
Passengers
69
locational choicer of production and distribution
Freight
70
the choice of a transportation mode to route passengers and freight between
origins and destinations becomes important and depends on several factors:
(they define TRANSPORTATION COSTS)
} Nature of the goods
} Available infrastructures
} Origins and destinations
} Technology
} Respective distances.
71
are the costs internally assumed by the providers of transport services. They come as fixed (infrastructure) and variable (operating) costs,
depending on a variety of conditions related to geography, infrastructure,
administrative barriers, energy, and on how passengers and freight are carried.
Three major components, related to transactions, shipments and the friction of distance, impact on transport costs
TRANSPORT COSTS
72
______ have significant impacts on the nature of economic activities as well as on international trade.
Transport costs
73
____are the price of transportation services paid by their users. They are the negotiated monetary cost of moving a passenger or a unit of freight between a specific origin and destination.
____ are often visible to the consumers since transport service providers must provide this information to secure transactions. They may not necessarily express the real transport costs.
Rates
74
The difference between _____ either results in a loss or a profit from the service provider.
costs and rates
75
two cost components
} FIXED COSTS
} VARIABLE COSTS
76
} costs incurred by individual or transport operator in providing
particular services
} Opportunity cost to firm, individual, or resources; based on market
value of factors purchased
PRIVATE COSTS
77
} Not paid for by the users
} Incurred as a result of external effects of transport activity
SOCIAL COSTS
78
ELEMENTS OF PRIVATE COSTS
} Track costs
} Running costs
} Interchange costs
79
of providing and maintaining surface over which transport
system can operate
Track costs
80
cost of purchasing, maintaining, & operating a vehicle run on the track surface
Running costs
81
the cost of providing facilities at the beginning and completion of a journey
Interchange costs
82
} Costs incurred before any traffic at all passes
} Includes:
} Costs of providing the infrastructure
} Costs of providing, equipping, and staffing the terminal facilities
} Costs of providing managerial, admin, and maintenance staff and their
offices and workshops
} Inescapable costs
} Do not vary with the level of traffic
FIXED COSTS
83
} Costs incurred by the actual movement of traffic and therefore vary with the level of traffic passing
} Includes costs of fuel, crew wages, maintenance of vehicles
} Escapable costs
VARIABLE COSTS
84
significant conditions affecting transport costs and thus transport rates:
} Distance and time
} Type of product
} Economies of Scale and Energy
} Empty Backhauls
} Infrastructure and mode
} Competition, Regulation & Subsidies
} Surcharges, taxes and toll
85
_____is commonly the most basic condition affecting transport costs.
The more it is difficult to trade space for a cost, the more the friction of distance is important.
It can be expressed in terms of length, time, economic costs or the amount of energy used.
It varies greatly according to the type of transportation mode involved and the efficiency of specific transport routes.
Distance
86
____ is also an important consideration as it is associated with the service factor of transportation.
transport time component
87
Many products require packaging, special handling, are bulky or perishable.
TYPE OF PRODUCT
88
The larger the quantities transported, the lower the unit transport cost.
ECONOMIES OF SCALE & ENERGY
89
___________
or the possibilities to apply them are particularly suitable for bulk commodities such as
energy (coal, oil), minerals and grains if they are transported in large quantities.
Economies of scale
90
About ___% of all the global
oil consumption is attributed to transport activities. T
Transport typically accounts for about
___% of all the energy consumption of an economy.
60
25
91
Many transport interactions involve _____ since it is uncommon to have a perfect match between an inbound and a return trip.
imbalances between imports and exports have impacts on transport costs.
EMPTY BACKHAULS
92
if a _____ is strongly negative
(more imports than exports), transport costs for imports tend to be higher than for exports.
trade balance
93
The efficiency and capacity of transport modes and terminals has a direct impact on transport costs.
INFRASTRUCTURES & MODES
94
___________ permitted a significant reduction in freight transport rates around the world by allowing relatively small transport units (containers) to be carried in massified loads.
Containerized transportation
95
Concerns the complex competitive and regulatory environment in which transportation takes place.
COMPETITION, REGULATIONS, SUBSIDIES
96
Transport services taking place over _____________ tend to be of lower cost than on segments with limited competition (oligopoly or monopoly).
highly competitive segments
97
Publicly available roads are a form of _____ since they offer their users free infrastructure.
(Ex. Taxes and tolls)
cross-subsidy
98
refer to an array of fees, often set in an arbitrary fashion, to reflect temporary
onditions that may impact on the costs assumed by the transporter. They also take place when fares are regulated, leaving the operator to find alternative sources of revenue.
ex. fuel surcharges, security fees, geopolitical risk premiums and additional baggage fees.
SURCHARGES
99
_____ is another form of surcharge where a transport service provider changes its rate according to fluctuations in the demand.
Yield management
100
_____ are the most significant form of taxation levied by governments with revenues often used to cover maintenance and infrastructure investment costs.
Fuel taxes
101
_____ are also commonly
levied on the usage of transportation assets, particularly at bottlenecks such as bridges and tunnels.
Tolls
102
Mobility is influenced by _______.
Transport Costs
103
The more ______ mobility is, the more _____ the movements and the
more likely they will take place over longer distances.
Affordable, Frequent
104
Empirical evidence also underlines that transport costs tend to be higher in the
_____ or _____ stages of a movement, also known as the first and the last mile. A
wide variety of transport costs can be considered.
Early or Final
105
Costs that are related to the loading, transshipment and unloading. (E.g. For complex transport terminals, such as ports and airports, terminal costs can involve a wide array of components, including docking / gate fees, handling charges and pilotage / traffic control fees.)
Terminal Costs
106
Two major Terminal Costs:
- Unavoidable
- Avoidable
- Loading and unloading at the origin
and destination
- Intermediate (transshipment)
costs
107
- Costs that are a function of the distance over which a unit of freight or
passenger is carried. ____ is also a cost function when freight is involved.
They include labor and fuel and commonly exclude transshipment costs.
Linehaul Costs, Weight
108
- Costs applying to the physical assets of transportation mainly infrastructures,
terminals and vehicles.
- They include the purchase or major enhancement of fixed assets, which can often be a one-time event that can be amortized over several decades. Since physical assets tend to depreciate over time, capital investments are required on a regular basis for maintenance.
Capital Costs
109
Indirect Costs:
- I
- S
- E
- Infrastructure costs
- Social Costs – externalities, accidents, congestions, noise
- Environmental Costs – air, water pollution, effect on climate
110
- Distance is disaggregated into mileage blocks
- Smaller blocks where movement costs are high (Congested areas)
- Large blocks where movement costs are low (sparsely populated areas)
Distance Scale
111
- Number of points are grouped together
- Common rate is applicable to all movement originating from or destined to any one of the points in the group
- Nullifies to some extent the impact of distance on the price of movement
Grouping of Points
112
- Basing points were regarded as the origin of all movement of that
commodity regardless of its actual origin
- Pittsburgh as basing point of steel. Consumers pay transport cost with
Pittsburgh as origin
- Now illegal
Basing Point System
113
- Varies between mode and as a function of distance (e.g. Excursion rates, charter rates, student rates, promos, special rates – modify the role of distance in the pricing of ______)
- ______? - distance as the main determinant of pricing
Pricing of People Movement, Airline
114
- Movement of information via airwaves is not destined to specific addresses
Pricing of Information Movement
115
Not charged directly to the consumer of information
- Total cost of operating the system as a whole, averaged among the total
number of licenses
- Data, plan, internet and wifi
Transmission Cost
116
- Estimate the total cost of carrying different kinds of mail, then averaged
- Standard price of mailing a letter anywhere within a country regardless of
distance
- Largest flows are generally intracity short distance movements which
subsidize the lower volume but longer distance intercity mail flows
Postal Systems
117
- Assumes that all resources are freely mobile both sectorally and spatially and
that all transactions take place at one point in space
- Transport costs are usually considered to be an element of ________?
- Location as less important
Transportation as a Factor of Production, Production Costs
118
Traditionally focused on value, prices and return of factors
Economic Theory
119
– Maximize profit – Optimal spatial patterns emerge automatically
Perfect Competition
120
- _____ as essential in the production process (Isard)
- Movement of a unit of weight over a unit of distance
* Ton miles and passenger miles
* Transport as output of labor and capital (derived demand)
- Different from other factors of production
- Direct or technical coefficient matrix
- Info on relative importance of specific input to any industry
Transport Input
121
No stock of transport input
- Service input
- Composite of services needed to move raw materials, equipment, labor, and
finished product to the appropriate places
- Include the price of all kinds of movement
Ephemeral Effect
122
Actor is a rational being
- Goal is profit maximization or cost minimization
- Endowed with perfect powers of perception
- Can compute costs & benefits & evaluate alternative courses of action
- Not subject to prejudice, bias, irrationalities
- Ability to predict future
- Relevant info is available & knows what to do with it
- Behavior is unhampered by any constraints
Classical Location Theory
123
Part of Classical Location Theory
- Assumed to be an isotropic plane
- Flat and featureless
- Transport effort is the same in all directions
- Isochrones will tend to be perfectly concentric circles
- Transport costs are assumed to be a linear function of distance
- Continuous and unbounded
- No political boundary lines to impede movement
- No political-institutional arrangements to regulate flow
Geographic Space
124
- Transport costs borne by the producer, location of natural resource is given
- Where to locate the manufacturing plant
- Materials site vs market
- Cost elements of the manufacturing industry
The Weber Problem
125
Expenditures for bringing raw materials to the production plant
Assembly Costs
126
Taxes, labor, utilities during production
Processing Costs
127
Expenses in transporting the finished products to the market
Distribution Costs
128
- Available everywhere
- Available in certain areas only
- Entire weight of material is part of finished product
- Materials loses weight in the production process
- Ubiquitous Materials
- Localized Materials
- Pure Materials
- Gross Materials
129
Manufacturing Industries:
- Distribution costs > Assembly costs
- Distribution costs < Assembly costs
- Market-Oriented
- Material-Oriented
130
Material Index Equation
- As MI ________, the product comes ______ to the market.
MI = Weight of Localized Products / Weight of Finished Products, Decreases, Closer
131
Production is best located near the source
- MI ____ 1?
Material-Oriented Industry, >
132
Dependent on the nature of product and
distance
- MI ___ 1
Footloose Industry, =
133
Production is best located near the
market
- MI ___ 1
Market-Oriented Industry, <
134
- Agricultural activities are space-consuming or area-occupying
- Specific use of a parcel of land as being a function of its distance from
markets
- One market located at the center of featureless plain
- Specific use of land, at any location, will depend upon its potential rent
- k (the ________), is the only variable as there is no place to place difference in prices, production costs, or output per unit of land
The Thunen Problem, Distance to Market
135
The Thunen Problem Formula:
L = E(p-a) - Efk
136
_________ declines outward for each _________ with increasing distance from the market.
Land Rent, Commodity
137
In the Thunen Problem Formula, this is the total transport costs incurred to move production per unit of land to the market.
- Value is ____ with _____ distance
Efk, Higher, Increasing
138
In the Thunen Problem Formula, this is constant for a particular crop.
E(p-a)
139
In the Thunen Problem Formula, this is the transport cost (p-a)
- Exploitation of the land for the particular crop is not economically worthwhile unless there is an increase in the market price.
- Concentric zones of agricultural production.
Zero-rent Margin
140
In the Thunen Problem, farmers are _____ whose location is given. They can select crop whose profitability is the _____ in their location.
Optimizers, Highest
141
- Regional concentration of productive activities, population, markets and
transport facilities
- Attractive because distances between production & consumption locations
are relatively small
- _____ in the movement industry enable them to charge lower rates
- Price of transport input is comparatively high in the ______
- Relatively permanent inequality in the level of activity between core and
periphery
Economic Regularization, Scale Economies, Periphery
142
Allow resource based activities to develop, products will flow to the core regions
Natural resource endowments
143
- Businesses tend to locate at points of ______ to their potential market
- ______ are borne directly by consumers
- _____ of their business is a direct function of their location
Maximum Accessibility, Distribution Costs, Volume
144
Who said "in the long run we will all be dead" (Pertains to time, transport costs, and location)
Keynes
145
- ______ – average life of the depreciable assets in an industry
- _____ – led to the locational persistence o the steel industry in the core area
of the US (The industries were immobile). Has also prevented _______
Long Run, Inertia, Spatial Reorganization
146
Industries characterized by inertia _____ supply-and-demand location
factors
Ignored
147
Difference in physical distance between the current location of the plant and hypothetical median center
Inertia Costs
148
- Transport cost and physical distance can be equated
- Cost distance has decreased through time
- Changes in cost and prices are affected by:
} Cutthroat competition
} Seasonal fluctuations
} Bargaining between shipper and carrier
} Fluctuations in the value of money
Cost-Space Convergence
149
Places approaching each other in cost space as a result of decline in movement costs
Complete Cost Convergence
150
______ in movement costs was mainly a function of improvements in
transport and communications technology
Reduction
151
- Shrinking of distance
- Time distance has shrunk by 2585 miles in more than 400 years
- ________: air transport and passenger rail service has bypassed
many small communities
Time-Space Convergence, Time-Space Divergence
152
- Locations approach each other in time distances at _____ rate
- Rate of time space convergence is ______ at periods of transport
revolutions
Decreasing, Greater
153
Euclidean concept of space are
slowly becoming irrelevant and should be replaced by other geometries
Withering away of the tyranny of space
154
Pace of C-S and T-S convergence is extremely slow in most of the _____
regions. _______ continues to tyrannize
Developing, Space
155
Places are getting closer in terms of monetary costs to overcome distances.
Cost-Space Convergence
156
Travel time to overcome distances is getting shorter.
Time-Space Convergence
