Module 2

Question 1

What is ethics?

Answer 1

Moral philosophy.

The moral choices made by a person.

Question 2

What did Thomas Percival of the American Medical Association do?

Answer 2

Developed the first set of rules governing conduct of physicians (Percivalian Code)

Code asserted the moral authority and independence of physicians in service to others, affirmed the professions responsibility to care for sick and emphasised individual honour.

Autonomy, responsivity and honour in service of others.

Question 3

“Ethics consists of knowing what we ought to do, and such knowledge can be taught.” Is a statement attributed to who?

Answer 3

Socrates

Question 4

What is an unexamined life according to Socrates?

Answer 4

Go through the same repetitive motions day by day, and do not reflect on values

Question 5

What does Socrates conception of a good-life emphasise?

Answer 5

Rational reflection in combination with doing your part to contribute to the community.

Question 6

What is Plato’s virtue ethics?

Answer 6

Plato = a student of Socrates

Strengths of character enable us to flourish.

A virtuous person has practical wisdom (phronesis) - the ability to know when and how best to apply moral perspectives

Question 7

What is phronesis?

Answer 7

Practical wisdom - linked to Plato

ie the ability to know when and how best to apply moral perspectives.

The capacity to adapt our decision-making to the specific circumstances, instead of rigidly applying a set of rules.

Navigate the complexities of human existence in a manner that maximises the good and minimises the evil.

Question 8

What is eudaimonia and how do you get it?

Answer 8

Happiness

Linked to Aristotle

Through contemplation, learning, intellectual virtues, and good character (developed from life experience)

Question 9

What is teleology / consequentialism linked to?

Answer 9

Utilitarianism

It is outcome-based.

Most closely associated with John Stuart Mill

Question 10

What is utilitarianism?

Answer 10

Right moral action is the one that maximises happiness for most people.

Jeremy Bentham helped make utilitarianism popular in 18th century

Question 11

What are some issues with utilitarianism?

Answer 11

Should happiness be the only determinant of what is valuable? What about well-being?

Following the reasoning of utilitarianism, preventing minor harm (ie headache) to a large population is more valuable than saving the life of one individual.

Question 12

What is deontology (process based - duty/principles) linked to?

Answer 12

Kant’s theory that bases the correctness of one’s actions on fulfilling the duties of the actor.

Morally important thing is not the consequence but the way the chooser thinks when they make their choice as well as their actions.

Some human actions are intrinsically right or wrong, irrespective of their consequences.

Question 13

What does Kant argue?

Answer 13

The right action is based on duty and can be demonstrated in:

• religion
• universalism
• professional obligation

Argued that because humans are inherently rational, our ethical duties can be derived directly from rationality.

If we’re being rational, we are obligated to act such that our action could be universalised.

Morality requires that we “act so as never to treat another rational being merely as a means” -> we can never intentionally sacrifice the good of one person for the good of another.

Question 14

What does the objective nature of utilitarianism mean?

Answer 14

• Our happiness or unhappiness is no more important than anyone else’s
• It’s the moral worth of an action that is determined by its resulting outcome.
• One can only write the morality of an action after knowing its consequences.

Question 15

What perspective is psychology based on ? Deontology or consequentialism?

Answer 15

Both.

We’re dictated by those duties and principles, therefore there is a basis in the deontology, but we’re also required to think about the consequences of our actions, therefore consequentialism.

Question 16

What is universalism?

Answer 16

Loyalty to and concern for others, without regard to culture, race, sex, religion, nationality etc

Question 17

Taylor: issues with simplistic analysis of consequentialism? ie if action produces good it is ethicial, if it produces bad it is unethical.

Answer 17

1. may be unclear which effects are good / bad
2. Many actions produce both good and bad effects
3. An action may have good effects for some and bad for others
4. Although clear in hindsight, it may be difficult to predict the effects of an act prior to acting.

Question 18

What is the difference btw rule-based consequentialism and act-consequentialism?

Answer 18

Rule: rules are derived based on the likely consequences of particular categories of actions, rather than individual actions

Although there may be situations where lying has good effects, bcos it generally has bad effects, rule-consequentialism requires truth-telling as a general or universal rule.

Act-consequentialism requires the agent to determine the consequences of each act prior to acting.

Question 19

What are some limitations with rule-based consequentialism?

Answer 19

Fails to consider our duty to treat each indiv as uniquely important -> ethical framework can be dangerous and prone to abuse.

Gunman has 10 hostage, will let them go if his ex-wife can be brought to him and killed.

Straightforward consequentialist analysis -> preferable to sacrifice 1 person for the lives of 10
This contradicts our moral sense and seems unethical

Question 20

What is a major challenge and limitation of deontology?

Answer 20

Difficult to determine the basis and nature of one’s duties.

Also, when one’s duty will lead to bad consequences eg. telling the truth to German soldiers that you’re hiding Jews.

Question 21

What’s an example of how religious ethics are deontological?

Answer 21

The 10 commandments - they define specific duties a person should fulfil and also a basis for these duties - the commandments of an almighty deity.

Question 22

What is Kant’s categorical imperative?

Answer 22

“I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim become a universal law.”

eg. if we’re permitted to lie, everyone is permitted to lie.

Question 23

What is a positive and a negative for Kant’s categorical imperative?

Answer 23

Advantage: Categorical Imperative applies to everyone equally and is not dependent on idealogy or religion

Neg: defines universal duties in a form that permits no exceptions

Question 24

Explain virtue ethics

Answer 24

Associated with Aristotle

Focuses on the qualities of the moral agent, rather than the agent’s actions.

We should focus on developing qualities such as honesty, courage, altruism and perseverance and also work to cultivate these in others.

If we are perfectly virtuous, then we will always do the right thing - No one is perfectly virtuous so we require judgment and humility when choosing how to act.

Question 25

What are two important concept associated with virtue ethics?

Answer 25

Phronesis or Practical Wisom Eudaimonia

Question 26

What is eudaimonia? What must we develop in order to achieve it?

Answer 26

Eudaimonia is human happiness and flourishing. According to virtue ethics, all of our efforts are ultimately directed toward this end. To achieve it, we must first develop virtue (developing the capacities of intellect and character). Motivation is an important element of virtue theory.

Question 27

What is normative ethics?

Answer 27

Consequentialism, deontology and virtue ethics are more complementary than contradictory. They recognise: - everyone has duties, by virtue of being human and by virtue of professional training - the goal of our actions is to do good for others, both as humans and as professionals, therefore the consequences of our actions are always an important consideration - to fulfil one’s duties and advance the good of others, must cultivate the virtues and learn to apply duties and rules judiciously

Question 28

In H. et al. (2003), what were the 2 dimensions used to measure participants' moral position?

Answer 28

Idealism - low vs high acceptance of harm (ie concern for others) Relativism - low vs high acceptance of moral absolutes

Question 29

In H. et al. (2003) what were the 4 ethical ideologies yielded from the 2 dimensions? Which is closest to deontology?

Answer 29

Situationists - high idealism and high relativism (reject absolute moral rules but maintain that good outcomes can always be obtained) Absolutism - High idealism and low relativism (accept universal moral rules and believe that good consequences can be realised - closest to deontology) Subjectivism - Low idealism and high relativism (reject moral absolutes and base judgments on personal feelings about actions and circumstances) Exceptionism - Low idealism and low relativism (view conformity to moral rules as desirable yet regard exceptions to these rules as permissible.)

Question 30

In H. et al. (2003), what were the 3 hypotheses?

Answer 30

1. Psychologists would have lower relativism scores than physicians (due to greater emphasis on codes of ethics training) 2. Psychologists and physicians won't differ on scores of idealism (both jobs emphasise doing no harm to patients) 3. Psychologists will report being more influenced by ethics codes and less by institutional value statements, family views and religion, compared to physicians

Question 31

In H. et al. (2003), what were the findings?

Answer 31

- No sex differences - Psychs less relativistic and equally idealistic as physicians, as expected - Psychs more influenced by ethics codes and less influenced by family views, religious background and peer attitudes than were physicians, but they weren't negatively correlated. Differences reflect the varied professional cultures in which practitioners are trained and socialised. More psychs classified as absolutists (deontology) and more physicians classified as situationalists

Question 32

In H. et al. (2003), what were the findings attributed to?

Answer 32

Emphasis that grad programs in clinical psych place on ethics training, professional standards, and the code of ethics.

Question 33

What does Prima Facie mean and what are Ross (1930)'s 7 prima facie duties?

Answer 33

Prima Facie - accepted as correct until proven otherwise ``` Self-improvement Reparation Justice Non-maleficence Beneficence Fidelity Gratitude ```

Question 34

What is Ross (1930) Prima Facie Duty Theory? What is his theory in contrast to?

Answer 34

Moral intuitions are judgements about how an individual should act in a particular situation (context / circumstance) In contrast to: a consequentialist approach, particularly hedonistic utilitarianism

Question 35

According to Love, what's the best way a student can integrate and live ethical values?

Answer 35

Have good role models Need to be able to think on your feet, so you need to live the values rather than be cognitively aware of them.

Question 36

According to Love, what is the most important value for a psychologist?

Answer 36

Understanding the client as a human being and recognising the rule of 'above all do no harm'. Also attempt to do good. Avoiding harm: Recognising firm boundaries btw self and clients Doing good: going above and beyond. Problem is a fine balance btw helping others and taking over their lives (paternalism)

Question 37

In Sullivan (2002), what were 3 agreed-upon ethical behaviours by the psychologist participants?

Answer 37

- Addressing client by their first name - Having client address you by their first name - Offering or accepting handshake from client

Question 38

In Sullivan (2002), what were the 8 agreed-upon unethical behaviours that were RARE in practice by the psychologist participants?

Answer 38

- Erotic activity with client - Sexual contact with client - Borrowing money from client - Discussing a client by name with friends - Signing off on hours a supervisee hasn't earned - Doing therapy under influence of alcohol - Disrobing - Disclosing name of client to a class you're teaching

Question 39

What were 2 differences between Henry (2005) and Pope et al. (1987) and Sullivan (2002) (studies on psychologists attitudes on ethical behaviour)?

Answer 39

- Henry looked at fourth year students | - Henry used 4 point Likert scale

Question 40

What were Henry (2005)'s sample more likely to do, compared to earlier studies? Why might they have been more likely to do this?

Answer 40

- More likely to break confidentiality and report child abuse, or if client is suicidal or homicidal - Stricter laws these days on mandatory reporting and 4th year students maybe have higher level of perceived competence

Question 41

What are the 6 components that make up moral intensity?

Answer 41

- Magnitude of consequences (sum of harm/benefits) - Social consensus - Probability of effect (probability that the act will occur and produce the predicted outcome) - Temporal immediacy (time between the act and its effect occurring) - Proximity (nearness to the people affected) - Concentration of effect (inverse function of the number of people affected by an act of a given magnitude eg: stealing ream of paper from an organisation vs stealing it from one person) - Responsibility (ppl will assume little responsibility if the consequences involve someone psychologically or physically distant)

Question 42

An ethical dilemma is a conflict between what?

Answer 42

- Goodness or badness of the consequences of the actions (teleology) - Rightness or wrongness of the actions (deontology)

Question 43

What is an ethical dilemma?

Answer 43

When all the available actions will lead to good and bad outcomes

Question 44

What are 3 conditions that make people assume less responsibility for an unethical act?

Answer 44

1. Consequences involve someone psychologically or physically distant 2. Consequences are likely to occur in distant future 3. It's unlikely that the negative consequences will occur

Question 45

What do common ethical dilemmas in psych practice involve?

Answer 45

Apparent conflicts btw respect for a client's autonomy versus beneficence (client or public)

Question 46

Give 3 examples of 'ethical dilemmas' (involve a clash of ethical principles)

Answer 46

- Medicine vs euthanasia - Privacy vs duty to warn - Sexual harassment by psychologist vs disclosure of client identity in AHPRA investigation

Question 47

Give two examples of 'mixed dilemmas' (clash of an ethical principle with a non-ethical protagonist)

Answer 47

- Being subpoenaed in court to testify again client | - Being asked to act outside of competency at risk of losing job

Question 48

Which specific ethical dilemmas are difficult to judge according to Sullivan (2002)?

Answer 48

- Recruiting private clients through an agency contract - Providing personal advice in the media - Collecting fees through legal action - inviting clients to an office open house - Contingency fees for forensic work - Earning a salary based on a percentage of client's fee

Question 49

What are the 5 domains of EDM?

Answer 49

1. Resolving ethical issues eg. influence of colleague relationship quality on reporting ethical violations 2. Privacy and confidentiality eg. influence of multiple relationships on disclosure of suicidal ideation 3. Human relations eg. tendency toward developing multiple relationships 4. Research and publication eg. influence of team relationship quality on violation of withholding the info about debriefing 5. Therapy and fees eg. influence of therapeutic relationship on acceptance of gifts

Question 50

How is EDM similar to normal decision making? How is it different?

Answer 50

Similar: requires cognition (perceiving, knowing, believing and remembering) and is also affected by emotional and social processes. Different: EDM involves a moral justification of the decision process. Defining and supporting the 'best' alternative depends on a moral theory.

Question 51

Velasquez et al: What are the 5 philosophical approaches that inform EDM in psychological practice?

Answer 51

- Utilitarian - Rights - Fairness - Common-good - Virtue

Question 52

Velasquez et al: What 2 people conceived the Utilitarian approach?

Answer 52

Bentham and Mill to help legislators determine which laws were morally best.

Question 53

Velasquez et al: What is the focus of the Utilitarian approach?

Answer 53

The best action is the one that provides the greatest good for the greatest number.

Question 54

Velasquez et al: Who is associated with the Rights approach?

Answer 54

Kant

Question 55

Velasquez et al: What question should we ask when making a moral decision based on the Rights approach?

Answer 55

Does the action respect the moral rights of everyone?

Question 56

Velasquez et al: Who is associated with the Fairness approach?

Answer 56

Aristotle | "equals should be treated equally and unequals unequally"

Question 57

Velasquez et al: Who is associated with the Common-Good approach?

Answer 57

Ancient - Plato, Aristotle, Cicero More recent - Rawls - "certain general conditions that are... equally to everyone's advantage"

Question 58

Velasquez et al: what is the first step to analysing moral issues? What is the limitation of this?

Answer 58

Get the facts The facts only tell us what 'is' not what 'ought to be' Resolving an ethical issue also requires an appeal to values.

Question 59

Velasquez et al: List some of the rights associated with the basic right to be treated as we choose.

Answer 59

Kant focuses on the individuals right to choose for themselves. It is a violation of human dignity to use people in ways they do not freely choose - The right to the truth - The right to privacy - The right not to be injured - The right to what is agreed

Question 60

Velasquez et al: What question should we ask when making a moral decision using the fairness / justice approach?

Answer 60

How fair is this action? Does it treat everyone in the same way, or does it show favouritism and discrimination?

Question 61

Velasquez et al: What is the diff btw favouritism and discrimination?

Answer 61

Favouritism give benefits to some people without justifiable reason for singling them out Discrimination imposes burdens on people who are no different from those on whom burdens are not imposed.

Question 62

Velasquez et al: What does the common-good approach assume?

Answer 62

Individuals own good is linked to the good of the community. Community members bound by the pursuit of common values and goals Focus on ensuring that the social policies, social systems, institutions, and environments are beneficial to all eg affordable health care, effective public safety, peace, just legal system, unpolluted environment.

Question 63

Velasquez et al: What does the virtue approach assume?

Answer 63

There are certain ideals toward which we should strive, which provide for the full development of our humanity. These ideals are discovered through thoughtful reflection on what kind of people we have the potential to become.

Question 64

What are some examples of virtues?

Answer 64

Courage, compassion, fairness, fidelity, generosity, honesty, integrity, prudence and self-control.

Question 65

Velasquez et al: What question should we ask when making a moral decision using the virtue approach?

Answer 65

What kind of person should I be? What will promote the development of character within myself and my community?

Question 66

What informs complex decision making?

Answer 66

- Relevant code of ethics - Federal / state law - Advice from colleagues - Ethical principles which guide practitioner - Relevant decision making model

Question 67

What are the 5 ethical decision making models (EDMM)?

Answer 67

- May (1980) - Rest (1984) - Gottleib (1986) - ReFLECT - 8 step Koocher and Keith-Spiegel

Question 68

What are May's 5 questions?

Answer 68

1. What is going on in the case 2. By what criteria should decisions be made? 3. Who should decide? 4. For whose benefit does the professional act? 5. How should the professional decide and act?

Question 69

What are the 4 psychological processes that make up the Rest model?

Answer 69

1. Moral sensitivity/awareness - psych ability to recognise that a situation raises a moral issue and that a chosen action may have the potential to harm and/or benefit another person 2. Moral judgement/evaluation - requires a level of reasoning when considering the possible choices of action and their potential consequences 3. Moral motivation/intention -creates the decision for action, based on values (e.g. personal power versus benefit to another) 4. Moral character/action - refers to a psychologist’s manifest behaviour (action) in context

Question 70

Is Rest's model based on age like Kohlbergs?

Answer 70

The order is not temporal and that each component may influence the others

Question 71

What are Gottlieb's 3 dimensions?

Answer 71

1. Power [low - a psych gives a speech at the local PTA on childrearing practices, high - a therapist's influence over someone in long-term, insight-oriented psychotherapy]. 2. Duration of the Relationship assumes power increases over time [low – brief intervention, such as, a single assessment session for referral, high - a student and teacher]. 3. Clarity of Termination – likelihood that the client and psychologist will have further professional contact [low - a psychological assessment of a job applicant, high - a family psychologist who assumes that their obligation to a family is ongoing].

Question 72

What are the 6 steps in ReFLECT?

Answer 72

``` Re - Recognise a potential issue F - Find relevant information L - Liaise and consult E - Evaluate the options C - Come to a decision T - Take time to reflect ```

Question 73

What is the 8-step Koocher and Keith-Spiegel (2008) model?

Answer 73

1. Decide whether the problem is an ethical one 2. Consult relevant codes, guidelines and laws 3. Pause to consider all factors/traps which could influence the decision (eg: objectivity, values, personal characteristics, culture) 4. Consult with experienced colleagues 5. Evaluate the rights/vulnerabilities/responsibilities of all parties involved 6. Generate a range of possible actions 7. Determine the possible consequences of each action 8. Decide and act accordingly

Question 74

Koocher & Keith-Spiegal (2008): When ethical conflicts arise, which conditions will help create the best possible outcomes?

Answer 74

- Sufficient time for systematic collection of info to consider strategies, consultation, intervention and follow-up - Proper identification of the person/entity to whom one owes primary allegiance - opportunity to involve all relevant parties - Operating under low stress and a mind-set that maximises objectivity - maintenance of ongoing evaluation that allows for midcourse corrections or other changes

Question 75

What are some common ethical traps?

Answer 75

- Commonsense / objectivity - belief that objective solutions to professional ethical dilemmas are easy to come by. - Values Trap - Personal values (morals, religion) in conflict with requirements specified by professional code. - Circumstantiality Trap - belief that what is 'right' or 'wrong' behaviour depends on the circumstance - Who will benefit trap - the resolution of the ethical dilemma often means taking sides among two or more conflicting interests.

Question 76

What are the 3 most predominant schemas amongst mental health professionals?

Answer 76

- Unrelenting standards - Self-sacrifice - Entitlement

Question 77

Zhang et al: what are the 3 types of perfectionism?

Answer 77

1. Self-oriented perfectionism - tendecy for indiv to set and seek high self-standards of performance 2. Other-oriented perfectionism - indiv expects that others should or would be perfect in their performance 3. Socially perscribed perfectionism - indiv believes that others expect perfection from them