Module 2 - Child development Flashcards

Question

state the ideas that support the criticism that cognitive development isn't an all or nothing phenomenon?

Answer 1

1. Numerical skills in pre-schoolers | 2. Social cognition in pre-schoolers

Answer 2

o Counting - Even when they don’t use the right numbers, toddlers understand what counting is all about o Numerical reasoning - Could Piaget’s assertion that children can’t conserve number be due to repeated questioning? - One reason why children failed his conservation tasks is because due to the fact when you ask them the same question they tend to change their answer as they believe you were not happy with the first answer

Answer 3

o Egocentrism o Theory of mind o Others’ likes and dislikes o True and false beliefs

Answer 4

- One aspect of theory of mind - False belief task On average, - 4-year-olds pass and 3-year-olds don’t

Answer 5

- Broccoli versus crackers study - 18-month-olds gave the experimenter what she liked - 14-month olds gave the experimenter what they liked

Answer 6

- A group of skills relating to the understanding of the existence of other people’s minds (their intentions, beliefs, likes and dislikes, perspectives, etc.) - Theory of mind allows us to be effective in social situations

Answer 7

- Piaget thought that children were egocentric until they were around 7 years old - Even 3- and 4-year-olds can ‘pass’ a diorama task if it’s relevant - At 2 ½ to 3 ½ children will turn a book around so an adult can see it, and bend down when talking to younger children Children under 1 year will turn to see what their mother is looking at

Answer 8

- Forming bonds with people • Learning to behave in socially acceptable ways • Learning to be good friends and allies • Learning to deal with adversaries

Answer 9

through social learning theory and cognitive developmental theory

Answer 10

Simply the theory where you learn by watching other people do it, i.e imitate, you pick up the phrases, slangs with whom you hang out with. Start picking up behaviour from people who are with constantly.

Answer 11

Cognitive development drives social development i.e theory of mind

Answer 12

- The parents style can affect the child behaviour but the child's behaviour can also affect the parenting style

Answer 13

the punishment should be severe enough that the child will change their behaviour but not so severe than they get forced into doing it.

Answer 14

understanding others feelings

Answer 15

- Have to workout out what emotions are okay to show - How to cope with emotions - Knowing your gonna get sacred if you go watch a horror movie

Answer 16

behaviour that conforms to a generally accepted set of rules

Answer 17

- Studied boys aged between 10 and 17 years - Presented subjects with scenarios Example: Heinz’s wife is dying of cancer, and can be treated only by a medication discovered by a local pharmacist. Heinz cannot afford the price that the pharmacist demands. He breaks into the store and steals the drug…

Answer 18

- preconventional - conventional - post - conventional

Answer 19

- Behaviour based on external sanctions, such as authority and punishment Stage 1 – Morality of punishment and obedience Children obey authority and avoid punishment. Stage 2 – Morality of naïve instrumental hedonism Behaviour guided egocentrically by the pleasantness of its consequences to them.

Answer 20

- Includes an understanding that the social system has an interest in people’s behaviour. Stage 3 – Morality of maintaining good relations Children want to be regarded as good, well-behaved people. Stage 4 – Morality of maintaining social order Laws and moral rules maintain social order and must be obeyed.

Answer 21

( TO GET INTO THIS STAGE YOU HAVE TO SAY TO STEAL THE DRUG) Moral rules have some underlying principles that apply to all situations and societies. Stage 5 – Morality of social contracts Rules are social contracts, not all authority figures are infallible, individual rights can sometimes take precedence over laws. Stage 6 – Morality of universal ethical principles Rules and laws are justified by abstract ethical values, such as the value of human life and the value of dignity.

Answer 22

Effect of wording changes on response - Little change in wording can lead to big changes in the peoples responses • Stages may not be coherent entities, but do reflect a progression - They do tend to move through the stages • Cultural and gender biases? - • Correlation between moral reasoning and moral conduct - Not a great correlation of what you answer on here and what you actually do in real life

Answer 23

what you are genetically | two XX or XY

Answer 24

what you look like, whether you have male or female reproductive organs, some on the inside, some on the outside

Answer 25

one’s private sense of male or female-ness ( for the vast majority, genetic sex, morphological and gender identity match up)

Answer 26

cultural expectations about ways in which men and women should think and behave

Answer 27

beliefs about differences in the behaviours, abilities, and personality traits of males and females. i.e girls love shopping, males would never admit they are wrong, women being more empathetic

Answer 28

Beginnings of gender-typed preferences | i.e - little girls gravitate towards barbies and boys trucks

Answer 29

- Knowledge of own gender - Preference for different toys and friends of own sex - Ability to assign gender to pictures is limited ( if you were to show them a picture and ask them whether is it a boy or girl, they go my length of hair, clothing, those types of things)

Answer 30

- Knowledge of sex constancy | - They know if it’s a girl it will stay a here even if they put on boy clothes or dress up like a girl

Answer 31

In mice the offspring's are lined up and often the hormones can influence the neighbour - What they found was if an offspring had 2 boys on its side, it beghavior more male like whereas if it had 2 females on its side, it would behave more girl like

Answer 32

Males deprived of prenatal testosterone behave more like females.

Answer 33

- Physical aggression in males appears to be biologically predisposed. - The anatomy of the human brain shows some gender differences thought to be due to different patterns of hormone exposure during development. - the Broca and vernicles areas are slightly bigger relatively in girls -

Answer 34

- Males with low testosterone levels do worse on spatial tasks - Females with high testosterone levels tend to do better on spatial ability tasks - Testosterone fluctuations during the menstrual cycle

Answer 35

- A medical condition where you are a female but your adrenal glands produce really high levels of testosterone(abnormally high) hence changes the external appearance of the sex organs. The clitoris starts to resemble a penis. - Few more things we may associate with males - tomboy, slightly lower verbal skills - You can have a slight or severely disorder

Answer 36

- 2 identical twin boys - Burnt bruce's penis mostly off - So bruce was raised as a girl, it did not go well - Wanted to do what males did

Answer 37

- 6- and 8-year-old boys and girls invited to play a game. Game labeled as gender-appropriate, gender-neutral, or gender inappropriate. - Children found the game more enjoyable if it was labeled as gender appropriate or neutral. Children’s performance was highest when the game was labeled as gender-appropriate and lowest when the game was labeled as gender inappropriate.

Answer 38

Examined mothers’ and fathers’ communications to sons and daughters aged 2-4 years: 1. during free play 2. when teaching a playground safety behaviour

Answer 39

Sons received more directives, fewer explanations, and more physical pressure than girls. - Parents communicate with young children in a way that may promote increased risk-taking by boys and greater perceived injury vulnerability among girls.

Answer 40

- Mothers of young infants introduced to a 6-month old infant and asked to play. - Infant’s gender label was manipulated. - Participants behaved differently according to the assigned gender label. - Even when there are no differences in appearance or outward behaviour, parents treat children according to gender label.

Answer 41

Parents who do not subscribe to gender differences in socialisation have children whose attitudes and behaviour reflect fewer gender stereotypes.

Answer 42

- 2-3 years | - Not representative of any thing

Answer 43

- First attempts at human figure drawings - 3-4 years - Tadpole Drawings - Circle/ellipse representing head 2 (or 4) protruding lines representing limb

Answer 44

- 5-6 years - Child develop a “schema” - Separate Trunk from Head - Initially omit or misplace arms - The way children draw is consistent, no matter how many times you ask them to draw the same thing they will always draw it the same

Answer 45

- Substance added to limbs A - rms correctly placed - Detail (clothing, glasses, ears, etc.) Emergence of neck representation (last)

Answer 46

- From around 9 years - Marks end of art as a spontaneous activity - More detail - Varying expressions - Better use of space - Use of profile - Kind of give up on drawing, either you draw or not

Answer 47

art is something to be done or left alone

Answer 48

- When we project things on to the drawing, based on what you see in the drawing the therapist will project meaning on to that

Answer 49

Draw-A-Family Test, Kinetic Family Drawings, House-Tree-Person Test - Interpreted in context of psychoanalytic therapy - says we project our unconscious desires onto thing we draw the way we draw it - No studies have shown ability of ratters to differentiate between drawings of well-adjusted children and those who are not well adjusted

Answer 50

- Draw-A-Person Test (self, mother, father) - give them 3 pieces of paper and 5 mins to draw a father, self and mother each and take those drawing and grade them based on how things are drawn, how good the score it and this scored related to the IQ - One of the top 10 tests used by US Psychologists - Research suggests that the test can differentiate between groups, but isn’t good at identifying individual cases needing special help. - Nadia’s Drawings - not intellectual but could draw very well

Answer 51

- Difficulties in diagnosing sexual abuse in children led to clinicians seeking a non-verbal measure of abuse - Suggestions that drawings may differ according to abuse history (e.g., sexual content, use of shading) - Researchers have yet to find a consistent pattern of graphic indicators that can distinguish the drawings of abused children from those of their non-abused counterparts

Answer 52

- intelligence - Psychological Wellbeing - Sexual Abuse

Answer 53

- Helping children to talk about events they have experienced - Content of drawing not relevant - Historically used in clinical settings despite an absence of empirical evidence - Research questions: • Does drawing help children to talk about the past? • If so, are accounts elicited in this way still accurate?

Answer 54

- - 5- and 6-year-old children - Visited the Fire Station - Interviewed 1 day later - Two manipulated variables: • Interview: Draw and Tell (half of sample) Tell (other half of sample) • Question Type: Free Recall (all children) Directed Recall (all chi ldren) Measured Variables: • Amount recalled

Answer 55

- Children in the Draw and Tell group reported twice as much information in the Direct Recall phase than the Tell children. - No differences between groups in the Free Recall phase. - Information reported by the Draw and Tell group was just as accurate as information reported by the Tell group.

Answer 56

- Increases the length of the interview? - Reduces social barriers? - Children provide their own retrieval cues? - Reinstates mental context? - Affects the interviewer’s behavior? -

Answer 57

- Children unwilling to disclose abuse - they do not know that what is happening to them is not normal - they could be embarrassed , could be threatened , don’t have someone they trust • Medical/physical evidence rarely present • Absence of eyewitnesses • Child witness controversy - adults vs the child - who does the court believe

Answer 58

- memory | -

Answer 59

- Had headphone on infants - one recording was the reading out dr zeus and one was another females voice, so what they did was they essentially made it that if you sucked one way you heard your mum and If you sucked the other way you heard someone elses mum, they found that very quickly these children would alter the sucking pattern to hear your mum, they recognised the voice of their mum

Answer 60

- Short duration - memories do not last that long - Context dependence - for a memory to emerge they had to be in exact same surrounding - Language competence - Knowledge base

Answer 61

- Free Recall accounts are highly accurate, but brief | - As questions become more specific, children give more detail, but also make more errors

Answer 62

“the degree to which one’s memory and/or recounting of an event is influenced by suggested information or misinformation”

Answer 63

if you say "was there was a gun " the child might say yes because they feel under pressure to say yes ( socially driven suggestively)

Answer 64

the child could also think if the interviewer said there was a gun, maybe there was and they remember there was a gun - hence memory changed -

Answer 65

children with low self confidence, lack of self esteem , lack of assertiveness can actually have an effect on suggestibility, but we also know that a child could be suggestible in one setting but not in another.

Answer 66

o Direct Examination (prosecution) o Cross-Examination (discreet the "victim") o (Re-Examination) • No lower age limit • No corroboration laws - Competency requirement - the judge has to be satisfied that the child is competence

Answer 67

- lack of legal knowledge - confronting the accused - courtroom environment - cross -examination

Answer 68

Can make children less willing to incriminate - A study where in magician broke a vase and he told the children not to tell, and when the children were questioned the next day in the presence of the magician they were less likely to incriminate • Effects likely to increase when children have been threatened?

Answer 69

• Child is questioned by the opposing lawyer • Aim is to discredit testimony • A “how not to” guide to interviewing children - the type of question asked go against everything you know in order to attain accurate info from children • Questions are often leading, complex, confusing, and challenging to credibility - during cross examination you are allowed to ask leading questions • Most children change at least one part of their earlier testimony - 75% of the kids made significant changes to their testimony - this could be under pressure of all the questions. - We do not know the chnages in the testimony are towards or away from the truth we handle this by lab • In the lab, cross-examination-style questioning is detrimental to accuracy - Used the same type of questioning and asked kids about an event where we knew exactly what has happened. - Go down to where lawyers are operating at chance

Answer 70

• 3 options for children giving evidence in sexual abuse trials: - In courtroom, with a screen shielding witness from accused - From another room in the court, via CCTV - Via pre-recorded videotape * Judge no longer warns jury that children are prone to distortion of facts * The system is still by no means perfect * Cross-examination still occurs live * Reforms to the cross-examination process are in the pipeline

Answer 71

1.5 to 2 hours

Answer 72

- Children’s Television Workshop - Targeted at 3- to 5-year-olds - Aimed to foster intellectual and cultural curiosity in preschoolers - Designed for children from disadvantaged backgrounds - Broadcast to 50 countries

Answer 73

Participants: 3- to 5-year-olds (N = 950) 5 cites in the US Procedure: Alphabet and writing skill measured before and after a 26-week season of Sesame Street Groups: 1. rarely watched 2. 2-3 times per week 3. 4-5 times per week 4. More than 5 times per week

Answer 74

- No difference in children’s scores as a function of viewing frequency prior to watching Sesame Street. - Children from all groups increased on alphabet and writing skill. - Children who watched Sesame Street the most exhibited the biggest gain on the alphabet and writing test. - Children from disadvantaged backgrounds watched Sesame Street as much—and learned as much—as children from advantaged backgrounds. - In fact, children from low SES families showed the biggest gains. - Children learned even when they watched Sesame Street alone.

Answer 75

Television watching in infancy delays development. • Television mesmerises children. • Children are overstimulated by television, leading to hyperactivity . • Television displaces other valuable cognitive activities including homework. • TV viewing decreases children’s reading achievement. • Television viewing disrupts children’s sleep. • Television violence has a negative effect on children and adolescents.

Answer 76

Participants: 52 children (mean age 7.75 years) Procedure: “Power Rangers” condition (22-min, 140 aggressive acts) Control condition - watched another show for 22 min with no aggressive acts Each child observed for a 2-min period Number of aggressive acts recorded by trained observer ( the observer was blind to the conditions to prevent biasness)

Answer 77

Results: - Boys committed more aggressive acts than girls - Those watching “Power Rangers” committed 7 aggressive acts for every aggressive act committed by a control child.

Answer 78

What this doesn't tell us is that what happens after the 2 minutes, are these affects shirt lived or did would effects carry on in their life

Answer 79

Participants: 198 8-year-old boys and their parents Procedure: Assessed preference for violent TV - Re-interviewed boys at age 30 - Accessed Criminal Justice records for all boys - Rated severity of criminal offences (violence rated higher)

Answer 80

- Boys who exhibited a higher preference for violent TV at age 8 had committed more serious crimes by the age of 30 years than boys who showed a lower preference for violent TV at age 8.

Answer 81

* Even very young children can learn from TV. * Extensive exposure to violent television does appear to have a reliable negative effect on children’s behaviour. * Children who view shows in which violence is realistic, repeated, and/or unpunished are more likely to imitate what they see. * Children with emotional, behavioral, learning or impulse control problems may be more easily influenced by TV violence.

Answer 82

- May be therapeutic and/or educational for children with chronic illnesses • May improve fine motor skills and coordination • May distract from physical and emotional pain • May improve decision making skills and brain plasticity • May foster persistence, resilience, and prosocial behaviour Claims made against videogame play are generally the same as those made against TV.

Answer 83

``` measured - Aggressive Personality Questionnaire Delinquency - Aggressive Delinquency - Nonaggressive Delinquency - Video game Use ```

Answer 84

91% reported videogame use - Average time per week = 2.14 hours - Videogame use correlated with aggressive personality, nonaggressive delinquency and aggressive delinquency

Answer 85

Method: Aggressive Personality Questionnaire - Assigned to one of two groups matched for aggressive personality - Group 1 played Myst (nonviolent) - Group 2 played Wolfenstein (violent) - 3 x 15-minute sessions of play - Competitive Reaction Task

Answer 86

- Overall, women delivered longer blasts than men I - ndividuals with high scores on the APQ delivered longer blasts than those with low APQ scores - Individuals who played the violent videogame delivered longer blasts than those who played the non-violent videogame - This effect occurred even when other variables (e.g., gender, APQ score) were controlled for.

Answer 87

Non-violent videogame use can have benefits • Danger of violent videogames for children and young people should in theory be greater than the dangers of violent TV o player is often the aggressor o there are often rewards for aggression • Studies on the effect of violent videogame use are plagued with methodological problems • Studies that address these kinds of problems show that the effects on aggression tend to be significant, but relatively small • Violent videogames with a prosocial or team-work component are likely to be less problematic