Module 3: Morality and Politics Flashcards
(32 cards)
What is Kolberg’s developmental theory?
People go from lower stages of reasoning (to avoid punishment for wrongdoing) to higher stages (social contract and universal principles to guide moral actions)
Which groups commonly exhibit the Pre-conventional level of reasoning?
Mostly children but also adults, soldiers, and prisoners (people who blindly obey orders)
What are the reasoners for Pre-conventional reasoning?
Judge morality of an action by its direct consequences
Solely concerned with the self in an egocentric manner
Not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong
Focus largely on external consequences that certain actions may bring
Stage 1 (obedience and punishment driven)
Individuals focus on direct consequences of their actions on themselves.
E.g. an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished. “The last time I did that I got spanked so I will not do it again.”
The worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be
This can give rise to an inference that even innocent victims are guilty in proportion to their suffering.
“Egocentric” - lacking recognition that others’ points of view are different from one’s own
“Deference to superior power or prestige”
Stage 2 (self-interest driven)
“What’s in it for me” position
Right behaviour is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest but understood in a narrow way which does not consider one’s reputation or relationships to groups of people.
Limited interest in the needs of others but only to a point where it might further the individual’s own interests.
Concern for others is not based on loyalty or respect, but rather a “You scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours.” mentality.
The lack of a societal perspective in the pre-conventional level is different from the social contract (stage five)
Which groups commonly exhibit the Conventional level of reasoning?
Adolescents and adults
What are the reasoners for Conventional reasoning?
Judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society’s views & expectations.
Accept society’s conventions concerning right and wrong.
Obey rules and follows society’s norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience
Adhere to rules & conventions rigidly & a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
Stage three (interpersonal accord & conformity driven)
The self enters society by filling social roles - individuals are receptive to approval or disapproval from others as it reflects society’s accordance with the perceived role.
They try to be a “good boy” or “good girl” to live up to these expectations, having learned that there is inherent value in doing so.
Judge the morality of an action by evaluating its consequences in terms of a person’s relationships, which now begin to include things like respect, gratitude and the “golden rule.”
“I want to be liked and thought well of; apparently, not being naughty makes people like me.”
Desire to maintain rules & authority exists only to further support these social roles.
The intentions of actors play a more significant role in reasoning at this stage; one may feel more forgiving if one thinks, “they mean well …”.
Stage four (authority & social order obedience driven)
Important to obey laws & social conventions because of their importance in maintaining a functioning society.
Moral reasoning is beyond the need for individual approval (stage three) - a central ideal or ideals prescribe what is right and wrong.
If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would — thus an obligation & a duty to uphold laws and rules.
When someone does violate a law, it is morally wrong; culpability is thus a significant factor as it separates the bad domains from the good ones.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Post-Conventional (the Principled Level)
Growing realization that:
Individuals are separate entities from society
Individual’s own perspective may take precedence over society’s view
Individuals may disobey rules inconsistent with their own principles
Post-conventional moralists
Live by their own ethical principles — principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, & justice.
View rules as useful but changeable mechanisms — ideally rules can maintain the general social order & protect human rights; rules are not absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question.
Elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, therefore sometimes their behaviour can be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning
Stage five (social contract driven)
The world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights & values.
Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts - those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet “the greatest good for the greatest number of people”.
This is achieved through majority decision & inevitable compromise
Democratic government is ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
Stage six (universal ethical principles driven)
Moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles.
Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, & a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
Legal rights are unnecessary, as social contracts are not essential for obligatory moral action
Does Morality need Religion?
Atheists/agnostics do not behave less morally than religious believers
Among industrialized countries, secular Europe appears more “moral” than religious United States
Secular Europe:
Lower crime rates
Better welfare protection for people in need
Less social inequality
Gives much more (as proportion of GDP) foreign aid (e.g. Sweden – 4 times more than U.S.)
Historically speaking, religion has led people to commit horrendous crimes (e.g. Crusades, Inquisition, Sunni-Shiite conflicts, religious fanaticism)
“Runway trolley” problem
Most people, religious or not, choose “permissible” to flip the switch
“Drowning child” problem
Most people, religious or not, say it is obligatory to pick up the child
What is the difference between moral relativism and moral universalism?
Moral relativism: moral judgements are true or false only relative to some particular standpoint e.g. that of a culture or a historical period
Moral universalism: the opposite of moral relativism. Even though people disagree & some may even be unpersuadable (e.g. someone who is closed-minded), there is still a meaningful sense in which an action may be more “moral” than another. There are objective standards of evaluation that seem worth calling “moral facts”—regardless of whether they are universally accepted
What are Shrewder’s ethics of CAD: community, autonomy, and divinity?
They are the code of ethics that guide people’s moral judgments around the world
What is the Ethic of Autonomy?
Views morality in terms of individual freedom & rights violations
Emphasis on personal choice, right to engage in free contracts, & individual liberty
Activity immoral if it interferes with rights of another person (e.g. stealing someone’s lunch money)
Of critical importance in all cultures
What is the Ethic of Community?
Emphasizes that individuals have duties that conform with their roles in a community or social hierarchy
There exists an ethical principle to uphold one’s interpersonal duties & obligations towards others
Morality as violation of hierarchical structures (e.g. addressing respected elder informally
What is the Ethic of Divinity?
Concerned with sanctity & the perceived “natural order” of things
Contains ethical principle that one is obligated to preserve the standards mandated by a transcendent authority
Immoral actions - any action that reduces one’s own or another’s purity (e.g. caricaturing the prophet Muhammad in the eyes of Muslims)
What are Culture Wars?
Polarized public debates
Orthodoxy vs Progressivism
Orthodoxy:
Committed to idea of transcendent authority which is viewed to have existed long before humans & operate independently of people
This authority is perceived to be more knowledgeable & powerful than all of human experience
This transcendent authority originated a moral code & revealed it to human beings in sacred text
This code is perceived to stand across all times & circumstances & shouldn’t be altered to accommodate societal changes or individual differences
Individuals & society are expected to adapt themselves to this ordained moral code
Progressivism:
Importance of human agency in understanding & formulating a moral code
Rejects the view that a transcendent authority reveals itself & its will to humans
Because social circumstances change, our moral code must change along with them
What are the pillars of Haidt’s multidimensional theory of morality?
- Care/Harm – for others, protecting them from harm.
- Fairness/Cheating – justice, reciprocity, proportionality (treating others in proportion to their actions)
- Liberty/Oppression – judgments in terms of whether subjects are tyrannized
- Loyalty/Betrayal – to your in-group, family, nation.
- Authority/Subversion – respect for tradition & legitimate authority
- Sanctity/Degradation – purity, avoiding disgusting things, foods, actions
