Module 6 Flashcards
Kahneman: What is a lot of conflict fed by?
Over-confidence
Kahneman: What is the loss aversion bias?
When people put a lot more weight on negative events than positive events eg: demand a reward of $200, if the risk is $100, so they’re very risk/loss averse
Kahneman: When might being an optimist be helpful? When might it be unhelpful?
Helpful - as an entrepreneur, more likely to persevere
Unhelpful - as a financial advisor
What is the availability heuristic?
When people assume a greater likelihood of some phenomena, because it is easier to recall from memory
What is confirmation bias?
When people seek confirmation of their existing beliefs, and ignore alternative information
What is the representativeness heuristic? Provide example
Ignoring the actual probability of an event occurring, and instead categorising it based on its similarity to a prototype eg: John must belong to a wrestling league, because he is muscular (looks like a wrestler), whereas Jim isn’t muscular
What is the homogeneity effect?
When we tend to perceive members of out-groups as being more similar to one another, while members of our own in-group are seen as more diverse
What is stereotyping?
Attributing characteristics to someone based on their membership in a particular group
What is social desirability bias?
When we report more socially desirable information about ourselves, while being less likely to report undesirable infomation
What is the planning fallacy?
When we underestimate the amount if time it will take us to do a task (optimism), but then overestimate how long it will take others to do a task (pessimism)
What is the identifiable victim effect?
When we are more strongly influenced by a single victim with an identity, versus a large unidentifiable group of people. This is why a single victim can be more persuasive than statistics
What is fundamental attribution error?
When we tend to explain the behaviour of others according to internal attributes, but explain our own behaviour according to external factors. (I’m assuming when the behaviour is ‘positive’, this effect would be the opposite)
What is the bandwagon effect?
When we tend to do or believe something when more people are doing or believing it. It may be more persuasive when others are doing it, or we are just motivated to conform
Which self-control-related effect has come under criticism recently, due to failure to replicate in studies?
Ego-depletion
Baumeister: What are the 2 traits psychology has found contribute to success in all areas they’ve been studied?
Intelligence and self-control
What parts of the brain does self-control come from, versus things like temptation and desire?
Self-control - frontal regions, newer in terms of evolution
Temptation - back regions, older in terms of evolution
What did the 2002 study on prejudice find?
- Physically attractive adults and children are treated more positively than unattractive, even by those who know them
- There is a great deal of consistency about what is considered attractive, and this holds true across cultures
- Physically attractive children and adults behave more positively, and have more favourable traits and outcomes
What is sociometric status?
The respect and admiration one has in face-to-face groups
Why might SWB be more affected by sociometric rather than socioeconomic status?
Sociometric status is defined locally in the context of face-to-face groups, whereas SES is typically defined as global status within one’s country (comparisons with individuals immediately around us affects our happiness more)
What is local-ladder effect they predicted?
Higher sociometric status leads to higher SWB
Sociometric status shapes what two important determinants of psychological wellbeing?
- Increased sense of power
- Increased sense of social acceptance
What is the effect of longing for higher status, versus actually possessing it?
Longing for status = lower SWB
Possessing status = higher SWB
How have characteristics of good leaders, as discussed in research literature, changed between the mid 80s to late 90s?
- 1986: “Dominance, masculinity, conservativeness”
- Late 90s: Self-confidence, teamwork, knowledge of the business, conceptual thinking, emotional intelligence, creativity, focused drive, customer-driven, drives profits, global perspective
What is the difference between a leader and a manager?
A manager administers and sticks to the status quo, while a leader innovates and develops new ideas
Why were early theories about leadership characteristics flawed?
- Unable to verify qualities scientifically
- Suggested innateness
- Suggested people couldn’t change their characteristics over their life
- Suggested context had no impact
What is a transactional leadership style?
- Focus on transaction between the leader and their subordinates
- Focus on physical and security needs of subordinates
- Based on bargaining or rewards/punishment
What is a transformational leadership style?
- More empowering
- Focus on subordinates strengths
- Focus on intrinsic/internal motivation
What kind of relationship do leadership and organisational culture share?
Bi-directional
What type of organisation is more likely to be influenced by individuals’ leadership style?
A young, fledgling organisation
What type of organisation is likely to influence the leadership styles of the individuals within it?
An older, well-established organisation
What type of leader is more likely to work within the constructs of an organisation?
Transactional
What type of leader is more likely to change or create the culture of an organisation?
Transformational
Explain the relationship between leadership style, organisational performance and organisational culture?
The relationship between leadership style and organisational performance is mediated by organisational culture (ie. leadership style doesn’t have a direct effect)
