Module 6 How Do Drugs and hormones Influence Brain and Behavior Flashcards

Question

Sensitization Relevance

Answer 1

-For many drug therapies, a drug must be taken for a number of weeks before it has beneficial effects ~Sensitization may underline development of the drug's beneficial effects -Before a person becomes addicted to a drug, must have experiences with the drug away from the home environment ~Sensitization may related to the development of drug dependence

Answer 2

-One can classify a drug by its most pronounced behavioral or psychoactive effect ~Antianxiety Agents and Sedation Hypnotics ~Antipsychotic Agents ~Antidepressants/ Mood Stabilizers ~Opioid Analgesics ~Psychotropics *Many drugs for mental illness were accidental discoveries

Answer 3

``` -Barbituates ~Produced sedation and sleep (alcohol) ~Can also produce general anesthesia, coma, and death -Benzodiazepines ~Minor tranquilizer ~Antianxiety agents *Drugs that reduce anxiety (Valium) *Often used for temporary purpose (coping with stress due to a death in family) ```

Answer 4

-Larger dose is required to maintain the drug's initial effect

Answer 5

-Response to a novel drug is reduced because of tolerance developed in response to a related drug -Suggests that the two drugs affect a common nervous system target ~Example *Batbituates and benzodiazepines affect the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA

Answer 6

-Activation produces an influx of chloride (Cl-) ions, which hyperpolarizes the neurons (IPSP)

Answer 7

- Sedative-Hypnotic Site | - Antianxiety Site

Answer 8

-Alcohol and Barbituates | ~Decrease influences Cl- influx

Answer 9

-Benzodiazepines ~Enhances binding effects of GABA ~Effect is dependent upon amount of GABA present *Harder to overdoes

Answer 10

-Group of sedative-hypnotics developed as anesthetics -Produce altered states and hallucinations -Example ~GHB, flunitrazepam, ketamine ~"Date rape" drugs

Answer 11

-Psychosis is applied to behavioral disorders such as schizophrenia -Antipsychotic drugs have improved functioning of schizophrenia patients and reduced number housed in institutions -First-generation antipsychotics such as chlorpromazine and haloperidol ~Drug that blocks the D2 DA receptor ~Produce symptoms reminiscent of Parkinson's disease -Second-generation antipsychotics such as clozapine ~Weakly block D2 receptors but also block serotonin 5-HT2 (serotonin) receptors ~Affect motivation and reduce agitation but may result in weight gain

Answer 12

-Proposal that schizophrenia symptoms are due to excess activity of the neurotransmitter dopamine -Evidence ~Antipsychotic drugs block D2 receptors ~Amphetamine promotes release of DA and can also produce symptoms similar to schizophrenia

Answer 13

- Two other psychotropic drugs that produce schizophrenia-like symptoms, including hallucinations and out of body experiences, are phencyclidine (PCP or angel dust) and ketamine (special K) - Both drugs exert part of their action by blocking glutamate receptors, suggesting the involvement of excitatory glutamate synapses in schizophrenia

Answer 14

``` -Mood disorder characterized by ~Prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt ~Disruption of normal eating habits ~Sleep disturbances ~general slowing of behavior ~Frequent thought of suicide -Common ~6% pf adult population -Twice as common in women as in men ```

Answer 15

-Block the enzyme MAO from degrading neurotransmitters such as DA, NE, and 5-HT2 (serotonin)

Answer 16

-First-generation antidepressants with a chemical structure characterized by three rings that block serotonin reuptake transporter proteins

Answer 17

-Action is similar to first-generation antidepressants, but more selective in action on the serotonin reuptake transporter proteins ~Also called atypical antidepressants

Answer 18

-Block the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic terminal

Answer 19

-Although antidepressants affect synapses very quickly, their antidepressive actions take weeks to develop -Prozac, an SSRI, enhances neurogenesis in the hippocampus ~Part of therapeutic effect? -20% of patients with depression fail to respond to antidepressants, suggesting that depression can likely have many causes

Answer 20

-Used to treat ~Bipolar disorder *Characterized by period of depression alternating with normal periods and periods of intense excitation -Mood stabilizers mute the intensity of one pole of the disorder, making the other pole less likely to occur -Mechanisms are not well understood ~Lithium may stimulate neuronal repair ~Valproate may stimulate GABA activity

Answer 21

-Opioid ~Compound that binds to a group of brain receptors also sensitive to morphine -Two natural sources of opioids ~Opium *Used for thousands of years to produce euphoria, analgesia, sleep, and relief from diarrhea and coughing ~The Brains *Peptides in the body that have opioid-like effects are collectively called endorphins (endogenous morphines)

Answer 22

-Endorphins and their receptors are found in many regions of the brain and spinal cord -Natural (morphine) and synthetic (heroin, oxymorphone, methadone, oxycodone, fentanyl) opioids mimic the endorphins ~Most synthetic opioids are prescribed for clinical use in pain management ~All opioids are potently addictive, and abuse of prescription opioids is growing more common

Answer 23

- Peptide hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter and may be associated with feeling of pain or pleasure - Mimicked by opiate drugs such as morphine, heroin, opium and codeine

Answer 24

- Mu, delta, and kappa | - Mu receptor is critical for morphine's effect on pain and for its addictive properties

Answer 25

-Drugs that act as antagonists at opioid receptors -Competitive inhibitors ~Compete with opioids for neuronal receptors

Answer 26

-Synthesized from morphine -More fat soluble and penetrates the BBB faster than morphine ~Competitive inhibitors can be used to treat opioid addiction after the addicted person has recovered from withdrawal symptoms

Answer 27

- Increase motor behavior and elevate a person's mood and level of alertness - Rapid administration of behavioral stimulants is most likely to be associated with addiction

Answer 28

-Blocks DA reuptake transporter, leaving more dopamine available in the synaptic cleft -Stimulates release of DA from presynaptic membrane ~Both mechanisms increase the amount of DA available in synapses to stimulate DA receptors

Answer 29

- To treat attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) - Treatment for asthma - Weight-loss aid

Answer 30

-Relatively inexpensive, yet, potentially devastation, drug

Answer 31

-Obtained from coca plant -Blocks DA reuptake -Powder is snorted or injected -Crack vaporizes at low temp. and the vapors are inhaled (smoked) -Derivates such as Novocaine are used as local anesthetics ~Reduce a cell's permeability to Na+ ions and so reduce nerve conduction

Answer 32

-Alter sensory perception and cognitive processes and can produce hallucination

Answer 33

``` -ACh ~Atropine, nicotine -Anandamide ~THC -Glutamate ~PCP, ketamine -Norepinephrine ~Mescaline -Serotonin ~LSD, psilocybin, ecstasy ```

Answer 34

-Drugs that cause a general increase in the metabolic activity of cells

Answer 35

- Inhibits the enzyme that normally breaks down the second messenger cyclic AMP - Increase in cAMP leads to an increase in glucose production within cells, which makes more energy available and allows for higher rates of cellular activity

Answer 36

-Alcohol has a selective depressant effect on the cortex (the region of the brain that controls judgment), while sparing subcortical structures (those areas of the brain responsible for more-primitive instincts, such as desire) ~"Too drunk to know better" -Limitation ~Behavior under the influence of alcohol often differs depending upon the context

Answer 37

-Under the influence of alcohol, people respond to a restricted set of immediate and prominent cues and ignore more remote cues and potential consequences -Immediate and prominent cues will differ according to the context ~Explain many lapses in judgment that lead to risky behavior, including aggression, date rape, and reckless driving while intoxicated

Answer 38

-Pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their lives

Answer 39

- Persons are physically dependent on a drug in addition to abusing it - They have developed tolerance for the drug, so an addict requires increased doses to obtain the desired effect

Answer 40

-Physical and psychological behaviors displayed by an addict when drug use ends ~Example *Muscle aches and cramps, anxiety attacks, sweating, nausea, convulsions, death -Time-course ~Withdrawal symptoms from alcohol and morphine start within several hours of last dose and intensify over several days before subsiding

Answer 41

-Increase behavioral and cognitive activity -At certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control -Occurs with many drugs ~Is there a common target (such as DA neurons) for abused drugs?

Answer 42

- Rugs that are abused increase mesolimbic DA activity, either directly or indirectly - Drugs that blunt abuse and addiction decrease mesolimbic DA activity

Answer 43

-Females twice as sensitive to drugs on average ~Smaller body size, hormonal differences -Females only slightly less likely to become addicted to some drugs -Females more likely to abuse certain drugs ~Nicotine, cocaine, amphetamine, opioids, cannabinoids, caffeine, PCP

Answer 44

-Pleasure and Dependence ~Habitual drug users initially experience pleasure but then endure psychological and physiological withdrawal symptoms as the drug wears off -However, an addict may abstain from a drug for months, long after any withdrawal symptoms have abated, yet still be drawn back to using

Answer 45

-Wanting (craving) and liking (pleasure) may be produced by different parts of the brain ~Wanting *Sensitizes with repeated drug use; craving increases *Mesolimbic DA system ~Liking *Tolerance develops with repeated drug use; pleasure decreases *Opioid neurons -Wanting a drug and liking a drug go in opposite directions with repeated drug use -Wanting (craving) is associated with drug cues

Answer 46

- Decision to take a drug is made in the frontal cortex - Drug activates opioid systems related to pleasurable experiences - Wanting drugs springs from activity in the dopaminergic system - Voluntary control of drug taking gives way to unconscious processes- a "habit" (striatum)

Answer 47

- Despite some evidence of a genetic contribution, no gene or set of genes related to alcoholism have been found - Any satisfactory explanation of drug abuse will require genetic and learning components

Answer 48

-Unusual risk-taking may be trait common to drug abusers

Answer 49

- Addictive drugs can influence gene regulation - Addictive drugs can selectively turn off gene related to voluntary control and turn on genes related to behaviors susceptible to addiction - Changes are relatively permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations

Answer 50

-The best approaches recognize that addiction will be a life-long problem for most people ~Thus, addiction must be treated in the same way as other individual and medical problems are treated

Answer 51

-Many substances, even natural ones such as glutamate, can be neurotoxins -It is difficult to determine if recreational drugs are harmful ~Is it the drug itself or factors associated with drug use? ~Do drugs initiate problems or aggravate preexisting condition? ~Hard to isolate which ingredients may be the harmful ones

Answer 52

``` -Amphetamines ~MDMA (ecstasy) *Serotonin neurons ~Methamphetamines *DA neurons -Cocaine ~Blocks cerebral blood flow -Phencyclidine (PCP or "angle dust") ~Blocks NMDA receptors ```

Answer 53

- Doses of ecstasy approximating those taken by human users result in the degeneration of very fine serotonergic nerve terminals - In monkeys, the terminal loss may be permanent

Answer 54

- LSP - Marijuana - Opiates

Answer 55

-Hormones affect almost every neuron in the brain | ~Hormone -> Neurons -> Genes -> Proteins

Answer 56

-Produces neurohormones to stimulate the pituitary gland

Answer 57

-Secretes releasing hormones to influence target endocrine glands

Answer 58

-Release appropriate hormones into the blood to act on target organs and tissues

Answer 59

-Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol ~Example *Gonadal (sex) hormones, thyroid

Answer 60

-Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell's physiology ~Example *Insulin, growth hormone

Answer 61

-Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulation of physiological systems ~Insulin

Answer 62

-Control reproductive functions; sexual development and behavior

Answer 63

-Secreted in time of stress; important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism

Answer 64

-Diabetus mellitus ~Caused by a failure of the pancreas to secrete enough (or any) insulin ~Hyperglycemia *High blood-glucose levels; cells are not using glucose and therefore are not able to function properly ~Hypoglycemia *Low blood-glucose levels

Answer 65

-Organizational Hypothesis ~Proposal that actions of hormones during development alter tissue differentiation ~Example *Testosterone masculinizes the brain

Answer 66

- Male brain is slightly larger than females after correcting for body size - Right hemisphere is larger than the left hemisphere in men - Female brains have higher rates of cerebral blood flow and glucose utilization - Parts of the corpus callosum are larger in women - Language areas of the brain are somewhat larger in women

Answer 67

-Men tend to excel on spatial tasks whereas women tend to excel on verbal tasks -Performance of women differs during the course of the menstrual cycle ~Low female sex hormones *Better spatial performance ~High female sex hormones *Better verbal performance -Differences between pre- and postmenopausal women, and during various stages of pregnancy

Answer 68

-A class of synthetic hormones related to the male sex hormone testosterone that have both muscle-building (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effects

Answer 69

- Body reduces production of testosterone reducing male fertility - Increased aggression - Increased risk of heart attack and stroke - Compromised liver and kidney function - Masculinization of female users

Answer 70

-A stimulus that challenges the body's homeostasis and triggers arousal

Answer 71

-The physiological and behavioral arousal and any attempt to reduce the stress -Two sequences ~Fast-acting *Primes the body immediately for fight or flight (epinephrine) ~Slow-acting *Both mobilizes the body's resources to confront a stressor and repairs stress-related damage (cortisol)

Answer 72

-Normally, stress response are brief -Stress responses are turned on and off in the brain -Sapolsky (2005) ~Hippocampus is well-suited to detecting cortisol in the blood and instructing the hypothalamus to reduce blood-cortisol levels ~Too much cortisol will damage neurons in the hippocampus -Vicious cycle involving prolonged stress, cortisol levels, and hippocampal functioning -Glucocorticoid-receptor density in the hippocampi of suicide victims who have been sexually abused in childhood was decreased compared to control subjects -Decrease in receptors and in glucocorticoid mRNA suggest that childhood abuse induces epigenetic changes in the expression of the glucocorticoid genes -Decrease in the glucocorticoid receptors presumably render the hippocampus less able to end stress responses

Answer 73

-Many college students think they are harmless, but misuse can carry serious health risks including mental problems ~Depression ~Bipolar disorder ~Incidents of aggression or hostile behavior, and addiction

Answer 74

-Developmental disorder characterized by core behavioral symptoms including impulsivity, hyperactivity, and/or inattention

Answer 75

-Schedule II drugs, both drugs share the pharmacological properties of amphetamine ~Prolonging and increasing DA levels in the synapse by reversing its transporter`

Answer 76

-Stud of how drugs affect the nervous system and behavior

Answer 77

-The sheer number of neurotransmitters, receptors, and possible sites of drug action is astounding ~Every drug act at many sites in the body and brain and affects more than one neurotransmitter system -Every drug has a primary or intended action as well as secondary or unintended actions -Individual differences ~Genetic makeup, adverse childhood experiences, sex, age height, weight- all influence how drugs affect people

Answer 78

- Substance that acts to alter mood, thought, or behavior; is used to manage neurorphsycological illness; and may be taken recreationally - Depending on the dose and repeated usage, can act as toxins, producing alterations in behavior, brain damage, or even death

Answer 79

- The way a drugs enters and passes through the body to reach its target - Drugs can be administered orally, inhaled into the lungs, administered rectally in a suppository, absorbed from patches applied to the skin or muscous membrane; or injected into the bloodstream, muscle, or even directly into the brain

Answer 80

-Easy and convenient but is nonetheless a complex route -To reach the bloodstream, an ingested drug must first be absorbed through the lining of the stomach or small intestine ~Drugs in liquid form are absorbed more readily ~Drugs in solid form are not absorbed unless the stomach's gastric juices can dissolve them ~Some drugs may be destroyed or altered by enzymes in the GI tract's microbiome -Weather a drug is an acid or a base also influences its absorption -Once absorbed the drug must enter the bloodstream ~The leg of this journey requires additional properties, because the blood has a higher water concentration, the drug must be water-soluble; then diluted by the approximate 6 litters of blood that circulates through an adult body ~Once the drug leaves the bloodstream, the body's roughly 35 litters of extracellular fluid further dilute it

Answer 81

-Some small-molecule drugs easily pernitrates the skin barrier

Answer 82

- Penetrate the cell linings of the respiratory tracts very easily and are absorbed across these membranes into the blood stream almost immediately after they are inhales - They reach the bloodstream by circumventing the barriers in the digestive system or skin - Drugs like nicotine, cocaine, and TCH, are similarly absorbed

Answer 83

- Is injected directly into the brain | - Is normally carried out only by medical professionals in a sterile setting

Answer 84

-Can be reduced by a factor of 10 -Example ~1 milligram is equal to one-thousandth of a milligram of amphetamine

Answer 85

-Cell membranes, capillary walls, and the placenta

Answer 86

-Tight junction between the cells of blood vessels found in the brain, blocks passage of most water soluble substances -Protects the brain's ionic balance and denies many neurochemicals passage into the brain, where they can disrupt communication between neurons -It protects the brain from the effects of many circulating hormones and from toxic and infectious substances ~Injury and disease can sometimes compromise the integrity of the BBB, letting pathogens through

Answer 87

-Neurons is no farther than about 50 micrometers from a capillary -Are composed of a single layer of endothelial cells ~In most parts of the body endothelial ells are not fused to the capillary wall, so substances can pass through the cleft between the cells -In the brain endothelial cells wall are fused to form tight injunctions, so molecules of most substances cannot squeeze between them

Answer 88

-Provide a route for the exchange of food and waste between capillaries and the brain's extracellular fluid, as well as, from there to other cells

Answer 89

-Lack a BBB ~The pituitary gland ~Area postrema ~Pineal gland

Answer 90

-Is a source of many hormones secreted into the blood, and their release is triggered in part by other hormones carried to the pituitary by the blood

Answer 91

-Allows toxic substances in the blood to enter that area and be detected by those neurons, which trigger vomiting to expel any ingested toxins that remain in the stomach

Answer 92

-Also lacks a BBB, enabling hormones to reach it and modulate the day-night cycles it controls

Answer 93

- Oxygen and glucose for fuel - Amino acids to build proteins - Reach brain cells from the blood, just as carbon dioxide and other waste products are excreted from brain cells and are carried away by the blood

Answer 94

- Small molecules, such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and lipid-soluble molecules can pass through the endothelial membranes - Complex molecules of glucose, amino acids, and other food components are carried across the membrane by active transport systems or ion pumps (transporter proteins specialized to convey a particular substance)

Answer 95

-The body begins to break the drugs down , a process that takes place in several areas of the body, including the kidneys, liver, and the intestines

Answer 96

-Through urine, feces, sweat, breast milk, and exhaled air

Answer 97

- Especially active in catabolizing drugs - Organ house a family of enzymes involving in drug catabolizing called the cytochrome P450 enzyme family - Is capable of breaking down many different drugs into forms more easily excreted from the body

Answer 98

- Synthesis of the neurotransmitter in the cell body, the axon, or the terminal - Packing and storage of the neurotransmitter in vesicles - Release of the transmitter from the terminal's presynaptic membrane into the synapse - Receptor interaction in the postsynaptic membrane, as the transmitter acts on an embedded receptor - Inactive by reuptake into the presynaptic terminal for reuse or - Inactive by enzymatic degradation of excess neurotransmitter

Answer 99

- Substance that enhances neurotransmitter function | - Drug that increase neurotransmission

Answer 100

- Substance that blocks neurotransmitter function | - Drug the decrease neurotransmission

Answer 101

-Excite muscles, increasing muscle tone

Answer 102

-Inhibit muscle, decreasing muscle tones

Answer 103

-Black widow venom ~Acts as an agonist by promoting ACh release to excess ~Do NOT inject enough drug to paralyze a person, though a victim may feel some muscle weakness -Botulinum toxin (Botulin) ~Is the poisonous agent in improperly processed canned goods ~Antagonist, blocks ACh release, and the effect can last for weeks to months ~Severe poisoning can paralyze both movement and breathing and so cause death

Answer 104

-Has medical use, injected into a muscle, it can selectively paralyze the muscle, making it useful for blocking excessive and enduring musclar twitching or contractions ~Including the spasms that make movement difficult- such as in people with cerebral palsy -Under the name Botox ~Is also used cosmetically to paralyze facial muscles that cause wrinkling

Answer 105

-Similar enough to ACh to allow nicotine to fit into ACh receptors' binding sites, where is causes the associated ion channel to open ~Therefore acts an an agonist

Answer 106

-Acts as an ACh antagonist by occurring cholinergic receptors, but does not cause the ion channel to open, and it also prevents ACh from binding to the receptors -Acts quickly and is cleared from the body in a few minutes ~Large doses, however; arrest movement and breathing for a period sufficient to result in death -Skeletal muscles are more sensitive to curare-like drugs than are respiratory muscles; an appropriate dose paralyzes an animal's movement temporarily but allows it to breathe

Answer 107

-Large doses can be toxic because they produce excessive excitation of the neuromuscular synapses, disrupting movement and breathing -In small doses, however; is used to treat myasthenia gravis ~A condition of muscular weakness in which muscles receptors are less than normally responsive to ACh -Action is short lived, lasting only a few minutes or at most an half hour

Answer 108

-Bind irreversibly to AChE and consequently allow a toxic buildup of ACh in the synaptic cleft -Many insecticides and chemical weapons ~Insects use glutamate as a neurotransmitter at the nerve-muscle junction, but elsewhere in their nervous system, they have nicotinic receptors *Poison insects by acting centrally, but they poison chordate by acting peripherally as well

Answer 109

-Decrease in response to a drug with a passage over time

Answer 110

- Metabolic - Cellular - Learned

Answer 111

- The number of enzymes needed to break down alcohol in the liver, blood, and brain increases - As a result, any alcohol consumed is metabolized more quickly, so blood alcohol levels fall

Answer 112

- Brain cell activates adjust to minimize the effect of alcohol in the blood - Cellular tolerance can help explain why the behavioral signs of intoxication may be so low despite a relatively high blood alcohol level

Answer 113

- Explains a drop in outward signs of intoxication | - As people learn to cope with the demands of living under the influence of alcohol, they may not appear intoxicated

Answer 114

-Increase responsiveness to successive equal doses -Is much more likely to develop with intermittent use -Is not always characterized by an increase in an elicited behavior but may also manifest as a progressive decrease in behavior Lies part in changes at the synapses -Can be associated with changes in receptor number on the postsynaptic membrane, in the rate of transmitter metabolism in the synaptic space, in transmitter reuptake by the presynaptic membrane, and in the number and size of synapses

Answer 115

- Many drugs therapies, including those for the psychiatric disorder schizophrenia, must be taken for several weeks before they produce beneficial effects. Possibly sensitization underlies the development of these beneficial effect - Sensitization is related to drug dependence, Before a person becomes dependent on or addictive to a drug, he or she must be sensitized by numerous experiences with the drug away from the home environment - Life experiences, especially stressful ones, can produce effects resembling sensitization that prime the nervous system for addiction

Answer 116

-Behavior in which non-human animals self-medicate

Answer 117

-Offers classification system for diagnosing neurological use and behavioral disorders, including those caused by drug use

Answer 118

- Chemical - Generic - Branded

Answer 119

-Describes a drug's structure

Answer 120

-Is nonproprietary and is spelled lowercase

Answer 121

-Given by the pharmaceutical company that sells is, is capitalized

Answer 122

-Has a very similar structure to adenosine and binds to adenosine receptors without activating them, thereby blocking the effect of adenosine and thus acting as an adenosine antagonist -Making us feel alert and peppy -It inhibits an enzyme that ordinarily break down the second messenger, cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) -Promotes DA and ACh, which endows caffeine with its stimulant effect the improve reaction time, wakefulness, concentration, and motor coordination -Repeated daily use produces a mild form of drug dependence ~When an individual stops using caffeine, they experiences sleepiness, headache, and irritability -Withdrawal symptoms are avoided by continuing to consume caffeine daily but will fade with time (4 to 7 days) if the individual gives up caffeine altogether -Acts as a natural pesticide, discouraging or killing herbivorous insects and inhibiting the invasion and colonization of pathogenic fungi

Answer 123

-Leads to increase glucose production, making more energy available and allowing higher rates of cellular activity

Answer 124

-Functions as an antiherbivore chemical and was widely used as an insecticide -Found in small amounts in potatoes, tomatoes, and eggplant -At low doses, is a stimulant -At high doses, it dampens neuronal activity -Tobacco smoker report feeling of relaxation, sharpness, calmness, and alertness -Within a few seconds nicotine stimulates ACh and several other neurotransmitters, including NE, EP, arginine vasopressin, 5-HT2, endorphins, and DA ~Release of DA that provides the reinforcing aspect -Dependence involves both psychological and physical aspects ~Lead to heightened anxiety, irritability, craving, inability to feel pleasurer, and tremors -Potentially lethal poison ~The total amount of nicotine in one cigarette, if injected, can be lethal to n inexperienced person -Respiratory disease, lung cancer, and related negative effects are caused by the harmful chemicals found in tobacco smoke rather than in nicotine itself -Vaping, in which nicotine can be inhaled without tobacco smoke ~Long-term health effects of e-cigarettes are likely less serious than those of tobacco smoke but are unknown -A risk factor of Alzheimer disease, cholinergic agonists are medically prescribed to treat it ~ACh inhibitors, such as tacrine (cognex), raise ACh level and may provide a small benefit although no medication has been clearly shown to delay or halt the progression of Alzheimer disease

Answer 125

-Reduce anxiety (low dose) -Sedate (medium dose) -Anesthetize or induce coma (high dose) -Can kill (very high dose) -GABAa receptor produces an influx of Cl- through its pore ~An influx of Cl- increases the concentration of negative charges inside the cell membrane, hyper-polarizing it and making it less likely to propagate an action potential -GABA produces its inhibitory effect by decreasing a neuron's firing rate -Widespread reduction of neuronal firing underlies the behavioral effects of drugs that affect the GABAa synapse

Answer 126

- Are a class of chemicals that include diazepam (valium), alprozolam (Xanax), and clonazepam (klonopin) and are medically prescribed to reduce anxiety - Often used by people who are having trouble coping with significant physical or mental stress (traumatic accident or a death in the family)

Answer 127

- Result when the tolerance for one drug, is carried over to a different member of the drug group - Also suggest that benzodiazepines and alcohol act on the nervous system in similar ways

Answer 128

-Is an extraordinarily popular psychoactive and recreational drug -The fermentation of sugar into alcohol is one of humanity's earliest biotechnologies -Consumption has short-term psychological and psychological effects that depend on several factors ~Amount and concentration of alcohol ~Duration over which it is consumed ~The amount of food eaten ~Consumer's weight and experience with alcohol -Small amounts of alcohol typically cause an overall improvement in mood and possible euphoria, increased self-confidence, and a flushing of the face -Medium amounts results in lethargy, sedation, balance problems, and blurred vision -High amounts lead to profound confusion, slurred speech, staggering, dizziness, and vomiting- an adaptive response to poisoning -Very high doses cause stupor, memory loss, unconsciousness, life-threatening respiratory depression, and inhalation of vomit -Long-term and frequent consumption of alcohol can lead to increased risk of alcoholism, a condition ruinous to individuals and families, as well as an economic burden. ~Often malnourished and typically have elevated levels of chorionic pancreatitis, liver disease, and cancer ~Result in damage to the central and peripheral nervous systems, as well as nearly every other system and organ in the body

Answer 129

- Range of physical and intellectual impairments observed in some children born to alcoholic parents - Children may have abnormal facial features, such as unusually wide spacing between the eyes - Their brain display a range of abnormalities, from small size with abnormal gyri to abnormal clusters of cells and misaligned cells in the cortex - Certain behavioral symptoms; they display varying degrees of learning disabilities and low intelligence test scores, as well as hyperactivity and other social problems - FASD are 19 times as likely to be incarcerated as those without it - Effects are worse if alcohol is consumed in the first trimester, a time of organogenesis and the highest levels of DNA synthesis - The risks are exacerbated because many women may not yet realize that they are pregnant at this stage

Answer 130

-Several receptors, such as NMDA, AMPA , and kainate

Answer 131

-Phencyclidine (PCP or "angel dust") and ketamine (special K), can produce hallucinations and out-of-body experiences ~PCP inhibits nicotinic ACh receptors as well as inhibiting DA reuptake *PCP is also a dopaminergic agonist, which may account for some of its psychoactive effects -Mematine (Namenda) antagonist that is prescribed in the treatment of Alzheimer disease to prevent neuronal loss

Answer 132

-PCP and ketamine compounds that produce feelings of detachment-dissociation-form the environment and self because they distort perceptions of sight and sound -Ketamine is currently medically prescribed for starting and maintaining anesthesia ~Induces a trance-like state while providing pain relief, sedation, and memory loss ~Being tested as a rapid-acting antidepressant and is in phase III clinical trials for use in treating major depression disorder ~As a glutamatergic agonist, is very different from those of most modern drugs prescribed to reduce depression, which operate on serotonin and NE targets

Answer 133

- Cocaine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine - Medically prescribed *amphetamine is a dopamine aga\onist and it prevents dopamine reuptake by reversing the direction of the transporter allowing dopamine to continue to interact with postsynaptic D2 receptors.

Answer 134

-Medically perscribed for schizophrenia and drug-induced psychosis, including chlorpromazine (Thorazine), haloperidol (Haldol), clozapine (Clozaril), and aripiprazole (Abilify, Arpiprex)

Answer 135

mood disorder characterized by prolonged feelings of worthlessness and guilt, disrupted normal eating habits, insomnia, general slowing of behavior, and frequent thoughts of suicide. * 6% of the adult population has major depression. 30% may have a least one episode that last for months or longer. * Major Depression is diagnosed twice as many times in woman then in men

Answer 136

a drug that blocks enzyme monoamine oxidase from degrading such neurotransmittters, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins.

Answer 137

drug that characterized by it's three-ring chemical structure, that blocks 5-HT reuptake transporter proteins.

Answer 138

drug that blocks 5-HT reuptake into the presynaptic terminal and most commonly used to treat depression

Answer 139

well known for altering perceptions of one's surroundings, feelings, sensations,and images (visual hallucinations) know as "trips". part of the counterculture movement of the 1960's and continue to be used recreationally and spiritually used while others such as (LSD) and MD MA are produced synthetically.

Answer 140

SSRI's share some similarities with trucyclics and their actions *improve neurotransmissions at the serotonin, noradrenaline , histamine, acetylcholine synapses and at the dopamine synapses as well.

Answer 141

inhibits the breakdown of serotonin so that more serotonin is available for release

Answer 142

selective serotonin reuptake inhibotors and tricyclics block transporter protein for sertonin reuptake : serotonin stays in the synaptic cleft longer

Answer 143

any endogenous or exogenous compound that binds to opioid receptors to produce morphine like effects. *psychoactive compounds have sleep like induction and pain relieving properties. *3 sources: Isolated -morphine, codeine Altered - heroin, oxycodone Sythetic - fentanyl, methadone

Answer 144

Opium is obtained from the seed pods of the opium from intern altered poppy. Morphine is extracted from Opium, and heroin is in turn altered from Morphine. *Heroin is more potent and more fat soluble and penetrates the blood brain barrier more quickly hence the reason for faster addiction and increase in mg over a shorter period of time. Opioid alters pain perception as well as physiological changes.

Answer 145

serotonegic drugs, several cognitive-behavioral therapies (CCT) and pharmacological approaches fail, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) electrical current is briefly passed through one hemisphere of the brain. SSRI's are usually not recognized until the first few week of treatment. Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil ,Seroxat

Answer 146

glutamate antagonist given in smaller anesthetic doses produce rapid beneficial effects. Usage in patients for acute treatment of suicide as well as bipolar depression also with the risk of suicide.

Answer 147

referenced to the cold skin that accompanies opioid withdrawals, in which the hair stands up and looks like turkey skin.this effect is opposite the warm skin experience after opioid use

Answer 148

respiratory depression which is primary cause of death of opioid addicts. decreased blood pressure, pupil constriction, hypothermia, drying of secretions (dry mouth) reduced sex drive, and flushed warm skin.

Answer 149

AKA THC - alters the mood by interacting with the cannabidiol receptor found in the neurons and binds with the CB2 receptors found in the glial cells and in other body tissues. *Cannabis - extremely low toxicity, no one has ever died from an over dose. however it may have detrimental effect on mood and memory, as well as a positive effect on mental overload.

Answer 150

produced by the body reduces anxiety and enhances forgetting, may prevent the brains memory system from being overwhelmed by all the information we are exposed to daily

Answer 151

usefulness - relieves nausea and vomiting in patients undergoing cancer chemo. who are not helped by other forms of treatments and stimulate the appetite in patients with anorexia-cachexia (wasting) syndrom * treats chronic pain through mechanisms that appear differnet from those in opioids . Cannabis reduced the dose of opioids in treatment of pain. * useful in treating glaucoma (increased pressure in the eye) spastic disorders such as MS (multiple sclerosis) disorders associated with spinal cord injuries as well as some epilepsy syndroms, helps PTSD as well

Answer 152

explanation of alcohol"s effects - depressant effect on the cortical brain region that controls judgement while sparing subcortical structures that are more responsible for more instinctual behaviors, such as desire. *alcohol depresses learned inhibitions based on reasoning and judgement while releasing the "beast" within. *Alcohol behavior: she was too drunk to know better :the boys had a few too many and got carried away *Alcohol is a disinhibitor - but not always so

Answer 153

under the influences of alcohol changes from one context to another: Home - Polite social activity Bar drinking - unruly and aggressive - ONE inconsistent - obnoxious gets into a fight TWO charming witty preventing a fight between two friends THIRD depressed and worries about his problems *Cultures -people are disinhibited when sober to become inhibited after consumption of alcohol *people are inhibited when sober and become more inhibited when drinking. *learned behavior under the effects of alcohol is specific to Culture, Groups and Settings. Example: Intercourse while under the influence, the alcohol was used to facilitate the social interaction and behavior and is a time out for more conservative rules regarding dating.

Answer 154

explanations for alcohol related lapse in judgement (nearsightedness)and the tendency for people under the influence respond to a restricted set of immediate prominent cues while ignoring more remote cues and possible consequences. Immediate and prominent cues are very string, obvious and close at hand.

Answer 155

a pattern of drug use in which people rely on a drug chronically and excessively, allowing it to occupy a central place in their life.

Answer 156

A complex brain disorder characterized by escalation, compulsive drug taking, and relapse; called substance use disorder per the DSM-5 * 3 Characteristics * escalation: increased drug consumption through increased dose, * compulsive drug taking:, repetitive and persistent drug administration despite negative consequences * relapse: the recurrence of compulsive drug use after a period of abstinence.

Answer 157

Physical and Psychological behavior displayed by a user when drug use ends. *sudden stop of drug of choice: symptoms may include muscle aches, cramps, anxiety attacks,sweating, nausea, and some drugs, convulsions and death. *morphine and alcohol can intensify over several days.

Answer 158

Increased behavioral and cognitive activity so that at | certain levels of consumption, the drug user feels energetic and in control.

Answer 159

Adverse childhood experiences (ACE's) emotional, physical and sexual abuse, emotional and physical neglect, mental illness of household member, witnessing violence against one's mother, substance abuse by a household member, parental separation or divorce,and incarceration of a household member. each ACE increases the likely hood 7-10 times more to report drug use problems and addiction. *90 % of individuals who have experiences 5 or more ACE's have not become addicted to drugs.

Answer 160

*woman are twice as sensitive to drugs as are men. *woman surpass males in the incidence of addictions to many drugs . *woman are more likely than men to abuse nicotine, alcohol, cocaine,amphetamine, opioids, cannabis, caffeine,and PCP. Woman begin to regularly administer psychoactive drugs at lower doses than do men, women's use escalates more rapidly, and women are a greater risk for relapse after abstinence.

Answer 161

Explanation holding that when a drug is associated with certain cues, the cues themselves elicit desire for the drug; also called incentive sensitization theory. *

Answer 162

the pleasure "rush" supposedly to a variety of impulse control disorders such as overeating, gambling, and repeated drug taking. *problem: initial pleasurable experience wears off with repeated drug taking and can become aversive and the user continues to take the drug. over time repeated drug exposure, the pleasurable or hedonic experience becomes dissociated from the drug taking. *there are separate brain circuits for pleasure (liking)and for repeating behaviors (wanting)

Answer 163

wanting and liking are produces in different brain systems * wanting is craving * liking is the pleasure the drug produces

Answer 164

*the initial experience, when the drug affects a neural system associated with pleasure. the user like the drug at this stage including liking it tot take it with a given social context. *

Answer 165

*the initial experience, when the drug affects a neural system associated with pleasure. the user like the drug at this stage including liking it tot take it with a given social context. *with repeated used liking the drug may decline from it initial. *at this stage the user may begin to show tolerance to the drugs effects and may begin to increase the dosage to increase liking. * classic conditioning again (Pavlov) example: hypodermic needle administration of the drug, the people and room in which the drug was taken with the drug taking experience. *the user makes the association because the drug enhances classically conditioned cues associated with the drug taking. Eventually the cues come to posses incentive salience:they induce wanting,or craving, the drug-taking experience.

Answer 166

involves multiple brain systems *prefrontal cortex: the decision to take the drug this area participates in most daily decisions *endogenous opioid system: relates to the pleasurable experience when the drug is initially taken. *Nucleus Accumbens : the wanting activity of the dopaminergic activating system

Answer 167

Axons of neurons in the midbrain ventral tegmentum project to the basal ganglia,including the nucleus accumbens, prefrontal cortex, and hippocampus. * when drug takers encounter cues associated with drug taking this system becomes active releasing dopamine. * Example: when a rat is placed in an environment where it anticipates a favorite food or sex, investigators record dopamine increases in the striatum.

Answer 168

*Barry Everette 2014- repeated pairing of drug related cues to drug taking forms neural association or the learning of is a region in the basal ganglia which consists if the caudate nucleus and putamen.* by the user repeatingly taking the drug voluntary control gives way to unconscious taking and processes a habit. user looses decision over control related to drug taking and thus gives way to the craving of addiction. *Ample evidence confirms that habitual users continue using their drug of choice even when taking it no longer produces any pleasure. *Heroin addicts report that sometimes they are miserable: their lives are in ruins the drug is not even pleasurable anymore still want it still take it *the desire for the drug is greatest when the addicted person is maximally high, not during withdrawal. *The cues are associated with drug taking-the social situation-the sight of drug and its paraphernalia-strongly influences decisions to take, or continue taking the drug.

Answer 169

more than one type of addiction * Rats: readily conditioned with cues associated with reinforcement -example- a bar that delivers reward when pressed. Other animals will ignore the bar salience but are attracted to the location where they receive the reinforcement. * Animals that display FORMER BEHAVIOR are termed SIGN TRACKERS other groups are GOAL TRACKERS * Sign trackers: exposed to addictive drugs attribute incentive salience to drug associated cues and is dependent on the brains dopamine system. * Goal trackers: also become addicted, possibly via different neural systems and imply at least two types of addiction (Yager et al, 2015)

Answer 170

Cues related to sexual activity, food and even sports can induce wanting, sometime in the absence of liking. we can be pompted by a cue of other people eating, even though we may not be hungry and may derive little pleasure from eating at that time. *exaggerating normal behaviors and drug addiction suggest they depend on the same learning and brain mechanisms. for this reason ANY addiction is extremely difficult to treat. *people who enjoy high risk adventure me be genetically predisposed to experiment with drugs, but people with no interest in risk taking are just as likely to use drugs.

Answer 171

three lines of evidence: * if a twin abuses alcohol, the identical twin (same genotype) is more likely to abuse it than would be a fraternal twin (only some genes in common) * people adopted shortly after birth are more likely to abuse alcohol if their biological parents were alcoholic, even though they have had almost no contact with those parents. * most animals do not care for alcohol, selective breeding of mice, rats, and monkeys can produce strains that consume large quantities of it.

Answer 172

* complementary explanation of susceptibility to addiction (Hillemacher 2015) * Epigenetic changes in an individual's ene expression and may be permanent and can be passed along, perhaps through the next few generations. * Epigenetics can account for both the enduring behaviors that support addiction and for the tendency of drug addiction to be inherited.

Answer 173

NID 2016 - people between the ages of 12 and older reported using Psychoactive drugs two most used legal drugs alcohol and tobacco two most used illegal drugs heroin and cocaine used by far fewer people Canada has legalized Cannabis to some degree legal proscriptions are irrational and difficult in treating drug abuse

Answer 174

made Heroin and a variety of other drugs illegal and made the treatment of addicted people by physicians in their private offices illegal.

Answer 175

partly reversed that prohibition, allowing the treatment of patients but with a number of restrictions.legal consequences attending drug use vary depending on the drug and jurisdiction. Tobacco has a mush higher health risk than Cannabis Social coercion is useful in reducing tobacco use. there is a marked decline in smoking as a result of prohibitions against smoking in public places. it is impossible to moderately use opioids. medical treatment is necessary in the treatment of opioid abusers.

Answer 176

vary depending on the drug * on line * in person communities * self help and professional groups * Addiction is influenced by conditioning to drug related cues and by variety of brain changes , recidivism remains an enduring risk for those who have kicked the habit.

Answer 177

Neuroscience continues to lead better understanding of drug use and better treatments. Best approach : Recognize that addiction is a lifelong problem for most people and should be treated in the same way chronic behavioral addiction as well as medical problems, such as controlling weight with appropriate diet and exercise is a lifelong struggle for many people.

Answer 178

Substances can act as neurotoxins Certain drugs can cause brain damage in humans, but definitive proof is very difficult to obtain. there is evidence that developing brains can be particularly sensitive to drug effects especially in adolescence. drug experimentation is common at that age. (Texteria Gomes 2015)

Answer 179

In the 1960"s a salty tasting flavor-enhancing food additive caused : headaches kills cultured neurons kills neurons in the brains of experimental animals * there is no evidence that MSG is harmful

Answer 180

domonic acid - toxins found in seaweed *kills neurons kainic acid - toxins found in seaweed *kills neurons ibotenic acid - found in poisonous mushrooms * kills neurons *These toxins act on Glutamate receptors - this results as an influx into the cell that activates a suicide gene leading to apoptosis (cell death)

Answer 181

PCP - glutamate agonist * at high doses causes neuronal death Ketamine - glutamate agonist * at high doses causes neuronal death * a drug can be toxic not only because of its general effect on cell function but also an agent that activates normal cell processes related to apoptosis.

Answer 182

-Are toxic because they act on glutamate receptors, activation results in an influx of Ca2+ into the cell, which through second messengers activates a suicide gene leading to apoptosis (cell death)

Answer 183

-Does not directly cause this damage Alcoholics typically obtain low amounts of thiamine (B1) in their diet and alcohol interferes with the ability of the intestines to absorb thiamine

Answer 184

-In low doses, methamphetamine, the active ingredient in crystal meth elevates mood, increases alertness, concentration, and energy; reduces appetite, and promotes weight loss -At high doses, induces psychosis in vulnerable individuals and can cause seizures and brain hemorrhage -Compulsivity, display unpredictable and rapid mood swings, paranoia, hallucinations, delirium, and delusions, often with accompanying violent behavior -Methamphetamine is a dopaminergic agonist, it interacts directly with the nucleus accumbens, which can lead to compulsive drug use -Withdrawal symptoms during initial abstinence may persist for months beyond the typical withdrawal period observed for other drugs -Chronic methamphetamine use has a toxic effect on human midbrain dopaminergic neurons and serotonin neurons, leading to reductions in gray-matter volume in several brain regions and adverse changes in markers of metabolic integrity ~Dopaminergic antagonists are used to treating psychosis, but they are not a cure

Answer 185

-Pure powdered form (Molly) -Structurally related to amphetamine, it produces hallucinogenic effects and is called a hallucinogenic amphetamine ~In monkeys, the terminal loss may be permanent -May also contain a contaminant called paramethoxymethamphetamine (PMMA)

Answer 186

-Also known as "Dr. Death" because the difference between a dose that caused behavioral effects and a dose that causes death is minuscule

Answer 187

- Also suspect with respect to brain damage - Related to the blockage of cerebral blood flow and other changes in blood circulation - Brain-imaging studies show that brain regions are reduced in size, suggesting that cocaine use can be toxic to neurons

Answer 188

- May trigger psychosis in vulnerable individuals, but there is no evidence that the psychosis is a result of brain damage - May have neuroprotective properties; can aid brain healing after traumatic brain injury (TBI) and slow the progression of disease associated with brain degeneration, Alzheimer's disease, and Hunting disease

Answer 189

-How the hypothalamus produces neurohormones that stimulate the pituitary gland to secret releasing hormones into the circulatory system -Only affect the body organs ~Also target virtually all aspects of brain function -Almost every neuron in the brain contains receptors on which various hormones can act -Influencing sex organs and physical appearance, hormones affect neurotransmitter function, especially in neurons that influence sexual development and behavior -Can influence gene expression by binding to special receptors on or in the cell and then being transported to the nucleus to influence gene transcription -Influence brain and body structure and behavior

Answer 190

-In turn, influence the remaining endocrine glands to release appropriate hormones into the bloodstream to act on various targets in the body and send feedback to the brain about the need for more or less hormones

Answer 191

-Influences the synthesis of proteins needed for a variety of cellular processes

Answer 192

- Fat-soluble chemical messenger synthesized from cholesterol - Testosterone and cortisol - Synthesized from cholesterol and are lipid (fat) soluble - Diffuse away from their site of synthesis in glands, including the gonads, adrenal cortex, and thyroid - Bind to steroid receptors on the cell membrane or in cell and frequently act on cellular DNA to influence gene transcription

Answer 193

- Chemical messenger synthesized by cellular DNA that acts to affect the target cell's physiology - Insulin, growth hormone, and the endorphins - Made by cellular DNA in the same way other proteins are made - Influence their target cell's activity by binding to metabotropic receptors on the cell membrane, generating a second messenger that affects the cell's physiology or gene transcription

Answer 194

-Fall into one of three main functional groups with respect to behavior ~Homeostatic Hormones ~Gonadal (sex) Hormones ~Glucocorticoids

Answer 195

- One of the groups of hormones that maintain internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems in an organisms - Maintain a state of internal metabolic balance and regulate physiological systems - Mineralocorticoids (aldosterone) control bother the concentration of water in blood and cells and the level of sodium, potassium, and calcium in the body, and the promote digestive function

Answer 196

-One of the groups of hormones, such as testosterone, that control reproductive functions and bestow sexual appearance and identity as male or female -Control reproductive functions -Instruct the body to develop as male (testosterone) or female (estrogen) ~Influence sexual behavior and conception -Women, control the menstrual cycle (estrogen and progesterone). birthing babies, and release of breast milk (prolactin, oxytocin) ~Oxytocin, influences mother-infant bonding

Answer 197

-One of the groups of steroid hormones, such as cortisol secreted in times of stress; important in protein and carbohydrates metabolism -A group of steroid hormones secreted in times of stress ~Important in protein and carbohydrate metabolism and controlling blood sugar levels and cellular absorption of sugar

Answer 198

-Is controlling blood sugar levels

Answer 199

-Caused by failure of the pancreatic cells to secrete and or enough insulin Blood sugar can fall (hypoglycemia) or rise (hyperglycemia)

Answer 200

- Blood glucose levels rise because insulin does not instruct body cells to take up glucose - Cell function, including neuronal function, can fail through glucose starvation, even in the presence of high glucose levels in the blood - High blood glucose levels cause damage to the eyes, kidney, nerves, heart, and blood vessels

Answer 201

-Inappropriate diet cal lead to low blood sugar severe enough to cause fainting

Answer 202

-That insulin resistance in brain cells may be related to Alzheimer disease ~Hunger and eating are influenced by a number of homeostatic hormones, including leptin and ghrelin

Answer 203

-Secreted by adipose tissue, inhibits hunger and so is called the satiety hormone

Answer 204

- Secreted by the gastrointestinal tract, regulates growth hormones and energy use - Induces hunger - It is secreted when the stomach is empty - Secretion stops when the stomach is full

Answer 205

- Class of synthetic hormones related to testosterone that have both musclebuilding (anabolic) and masculinizing (androgenic) effect - Synthesized originally to build body mass and enhance endurance - Synthetic steroid use rapidly spread to other countries; leading to the ban on track and field and then many other sports

Answer 206

-Sympathetic division of the ANS is activated to prepare the body and its organs for fight to flight response ~Stimulates the medulla on the interior of the adrenal gland to release EP *The EP surge prepares the body for a sudden burst of activity -Epinephrine stimulates cell metabolism, readying the body's cells for action -Parasympathetic division for rest and digest is turned off

Answer 207

- Controlled by the steroid cortisol, a glucocorticoid release from the outer layer (cortex) of the adrenal gland - Activating the cortisol pathway takes anywhere from minutes to hours - Cortisol has wide-ranging functions, including off all bodily systems not immediately required to deal with a stressor

Answer 208

- The body continues to mobilize energy at the cost of energy storage - Proteins are used up, resulting in muscle wasting and fatigue - Growth hormone is inhibited, so the body cannot grow - The gastrointestinal system remains shut down, reducing the intake and processing of nutrients to replace used resources - Reproductive functions are inhibited - The immune system is suppressed, contributing to the possibility of infection of diseases

Answer 209

-Argus that the hippocampus plays an important role in turning off the stress response ~Contians has a high density of cortisol receptors, and it has axons that project to the hypothalamus -The hippocampus is well suited to detect cortisol in the blood and instruct the hypothalamus to reduce blood cortisol levels

Answer 210

-Are usually regulated by the hippocampus, but if these levels remain elevated because a stress-inducing situation perpetuates, cortisol eventually damages the hippocampus, reducing its size ~The damaged hippocampus is then unable to do its work of reducing the level of cortisol -Hippocampus undergoes progressive degeneration and cortisol levels are not controlled

Answer 211

- The amount of damage that must occur to produce a stress syndrome is not certain - Brain-imagining techniques may not be sensitive to subtle changes in the hippocampal cells function or to moderate cells - Wide individual and environmental differences influence how people respond to stress - Neonatal stress can influence hippocampal neurogenesis - Are long-lived and gather many life experiences that complicate simple extrapolations from a single stressful event

Answer 212

-Report that the density of glucocorticoid receptors in the hippocampus of people who committed suicide and has been sexually abused as children -The decrease in receptors and in glucocorticoid mRNA suggests that childhood abuse induces epigenetic changes in the expression of glucocorticoid genes -Suggestion of a mechanism through which stress can influence hippocampal function without necessarily being associated with a decrease in hippocampal volume -Point that stress likely produces many changes in many brain regions ~Unlikely that all these changes have been described or are understood

Module 6 How Do Drugs and hormones Influence Brain and Behavior Flashcards

(236 cards)