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brain and behaviour > module 6: learning and memory > Flashcards

module 6: learning and memory Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

The systematic understanding of the behavioural patterns produced by an organism as a consequence of various environmental inputs

Learning involves observing and interpreting behaviors in relation to environmental stimuli.

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2
Q

What is an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)?

A

The external stimulus which naturally causes behaviour

UCS is a key concept in classical conditioning.

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3
Q

What is an Unconditioned Response (UCR)?

A

The “reflexive” behaviour to that stimulus (e.g., an eyeblink, knee-jerk, salivation etc)

UCR is an automatic response elicited by the UCS.

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4
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A

A neutral stimulus that alone won’t cause a response, but will after conditioning.

Example: a tone or ringing of a bell

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5
Q

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A

The behaviour caused by the CS, which usually resembles the unconditioned response (UCR).

Example: salivation

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6
Q

What is the purpose of presenting the CS alone in the initial phase?

A

To check that it is initially a neutral stimuli to the organism – ie. there is no CR (or other response) to the stimuli.

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7
Q

What is the purpose of presenting the US alone?

A

To check that the US DOES produce a response – the UR.

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8
Q

What occurs when the CS and the US are presented together?

A

The CR begins to emerge as the organism pairs the CS and US together.

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9
Q

What is the ideal timing for the CS to precede the US for optimal conditioning?

A

About 500 milliseconds.

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10
Q

What does the principle of temporal contiguity state?

A

The strongest conditioning occurs when the CS precedes the US.

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11
Q

What response occurs automatically in reaction to the US?

A

The UR.

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12
Q

Fill in the blank: The UR will automatically occur in response to the _______.

A

[US]

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13
Q

What is the term for learning where responses are likely to be repeated based on consequences?

A

Instrumental conditioning

Also known as operant conditioning, it emphasizes the role of consequences in shaping behavior.

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14
Q

In instrumental conditioning, what determines the consequences?

A

The animal’s response

The response acts as a means for obtaining a pleasant or unpleasant stimulus.

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15
Q

How are stimuli presented in classical conditioning?

A

Regardless of what the animal does

This means the animal’s behavior does not influence the presentation of stimuli.

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16
Q

Fill in the blank: Responses followed by consequences are likely to be _______.

A

repeated

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17
Q

Fill in the blank: Responses followed by consequences are likely to NOT be _______.

A

repeated

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18
Q

What is the primary difference between instrumental conditioning and classical conditioning?

A

Instrumental conditioning involves responses determining consequences, while classical conditioning involves stimuli presented independently of responses.

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19
Q

What is created in the cortex as a result of new experiences?

A

New neural pathways

These pathways connect novel sensory information to existing links.

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20
Q

What novel sensory information is mentioned?

A

Tone

This refers to auditory information that is newly connected to other stimuli.

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21
Q

What is the ‘normal’ link mentioned in the text?

A

The link between tactile stimulation and muscle movement

Specifically, this involves a puff of air in the eye and the response of an eyeblink.

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22
Q

What type of stimulation is linked to muscle movement in the example?

A

Tactile stimulation

This is illustrated by the puff of air in the eye.

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23
Q

Fill in the blank: New neural pathways connect novel sensory information (____) to the ‘normal’ link between tactile stimulation and muscle movement.

A

tone

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24
Q

True or False: New neural pathways only connect existing sensory information.

A

False

They connect novel sensory information to existing links.

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25
What happens when a learning paradigm is conditioned in animals?
No one site of cortical destruction universally removes the conditioned response ## Footnote This indicates that multiple areas of the brain may be involved in the conditioned response.
26
Can the learning response recur after cortical destruction?
Yes, the learning response can occasionally recur despite extensive cortical destruction ## Footnote This suggests that learning and memory may involve mechanisms beyond the immediate cortical areas.
27
What is the nature of memory?
Memory is multidimensional ## Footnote This highlights that memory encompasses various aspects and forms.
28
What do neuropsychological disturbances reflect?
The nature, locus, and severity of the underlying neurological disturbance ## Footnote This indicates that disturbances in neuropsychology provide insights into the neurological issues present.
29
What is the relationship between different neurological syndromes and brain damage?
Different neurological syndromes produce different patterns of brain damage ## Footnote This implies that each syndrome affects the brain uniquely.
30
What do different patterns of brain damage lead to?
Different patterns of neuropsychological disturbances ## Footnote This suggests that the type of brain damage informs the specific neuropsychological issues experienced.
31
What is the ability to process and transform information in memory called?
Memory processing ## Footnote This refers to how information is managed within the brain.
32
What is a characteristic of short-term memory?
Limited capacity ## Footnote Short-term memory can hold a small amount of information temporarily.
33
What does long-term memory enable individuals to do?
Retain information and use it for adaptive purposes ## Footnote Long-term memory is crucial for learning and personal development.
34
What type of knowledge is represented by 'knowing that'?
Representational knowledge ## Footnote This involves awareness and attention-demanding cognitive processes.
35
What supports the encoding of information in terms of relationships among multiple items and events?
Awareness and attention-demanding cognitive processes ## Footnote These processes help in understanding how information is interconnected.
36
What does long-term memory provide a way to model?
The external world ## Footnote This modeling allows for better decision-making based on experiences.
37
What type of knowledge is explicit knowledge?
Knowledge that can be consciously recalled ## Footnote This includes facts and information that can be articulated.
38
Into what two categories is long-term memory divided?
Semantic memory and episodic memory ## Footnote Semantic memory deals with facts, while episodic memory relates to personal experiences.
39
Fill in the blank: Long-term memory is divided into _______ and episodic memory.
Semantic memory ## Footnote Semantic memory involves general knowledge about the world.
40
What is semantic memory?
Knowledge of facts/general knowledge about the world ## Footnote Semantic memory refers to the understanding of information that is not tied to personal experiences but rather to general concepts and facts.
41
How is semantic memory characterized?
Knowledge that is not specific to an event ## Footnote This type of memory includes information that is universally recognized, rather than tied to an individual's personal experiences.
42
Is semantic memory mostly shared across individuals?
Yes, it is mostly shared across individuals in a given culture ## Footnote This means that many people within a culture have similar knowledge and understanding of facts.
43
What type of information does semantic memory consist of?
Generic information, likely acquired across various contexts ## Footnote This information can be learned from different experiences and sources, contributing to a broad understanding.
44
What does semantic memory include?
Words, rules, associations, and conceptual relationships ## Footnote These components are fundamental in forming our understanding of language and concepts.
45
What happens to information in semantic memory over time?
The information has become context-free ## Footnote This indicates that the knowledge is so well-learned that it can be recalled without the original context.
46
What is the role of semantic memory in our cognition?
Enables us to construct a mental representation of the world ## Footnote This representation helps us navigate and understand our environment and interactions.
47
What is confrontation naming?
A cognitive task that assesses the ability to name objects or pictures presented to an individual ## Footnote Often used in neuropsychological assessments
48
What is the Boston Naming Test?
A standardized test used to evaluate confrontation naming abilities ## Footnote Consists of naming pictures of objects
49
What does COWAT stand for?
Controlled Oral Word Association Test ## Footnote A test that measures verbal fluency
50
What are the two types of fluency assessed in COWAT?
* Letter fluency * Category fluency
51
What is letter fluency?
The ability to generate words that begin with a specific letter within a time limit ## Footnote Example: generating words that start with the letter 'F'
52
What is category fluency?
The ability to generate words belonging to a specific category within a time limit ## Footnote Example: naming animals in one minute
53
What does WAIS– Vocabulary assess?
The ability to define words and demonstrate vocabulary knowledge ## Footnote Part of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
54
Fill in the blank: The question 'What does assemble mean?' is an example of assessing _______.
vocabulary knowledge
55
What is memory for personally experienced events?
Ability to remember a personally experienced discrete event/episode ## Footnote Examples include movies, holidays, and news items.
56
What key elements are involved in memory for personally experienced events?
* What * Where * When
57
How is memory for personally experienced events described?
Strongly associative
58
Who conducted research on memory for personally experienced events?
Tulving (1972, 1983, 2002)
59
What term describes the ability to mentally re-experience past events?
Mental time travel
60
What is 'autonoetic consciousness'?
Mental re-enactment of previous events at which one was present
61
What type of memory is referred to as non-declarative or procedural memory?
Knowing how memory
62
What is a characteristic of non-declarative memory?
Is implicit and without awareness
63
How does non-declarative memory reflect memory aspects?
Reflects nonconscious aspects of memory
64
How is non-declarative memory expressed?
Through performance rather than recollection
65
Provide an example of non-declarative memory
Playing a musical instrument, driving a manual car
66
How are memories in non-declarative memory revealed?
Through reactivation of the systems within which the learning originally occurred
67
What is priming?
Indirect measure of memory
68
In priming, does the individual intentionally retrieve memory?
No
69
What is the individual's awareness of the connection to previous stimulus in priming?
No awareness
70
How does previous exposure affect subsequent performance in priming?
Influences performance
71
What types of priming can occur?
* Perceptual * Semantic
72
What is the role of the prefrontal cortex?
Important for implementing strategic processes that are critical for encoding, retrieval, monitoring, searching and verification ## Footnote The prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-order cognitive functions.
73
Do lesions in the prefrontal cortex lead to memory disorders?
No, they do not lead to memory disorder as such ## Footnote Lesions primarily affect executive functions rather than memory itself.
74
What deficits are associated with lesions in the prefrontal cortex?
* Deficits on working memory * Source memory * Temporal ordering * Prospective memory * Organisational deficits ## Footnote These deficits indicate challenges in managing and utilizing memory effectively.
75
What is prospective memory?
Remembering to do things or future thinking ## Footnote This involves recalling intentions in the future.
76
How can memory problems related to prefrontal cortex lesions manifest?
They may be secondary to an inability to organise material for the purpose of committing it to memory ## Footnote This highlights the importance of organisational skills in memory retention.
77
What is a common issue related to memory in individuals with prefrontal cortex lesions?
Failure to impose a meaningful structure on the information ## Footnote This affects the ability to generate appropriate learning and/or retrieval strategies.
78
What is a frequent concomitant of traumatic brain injury?
Lesions in the prefrontal cortex ## Footnote Traumatic brain injury often impacts cognitive functions managed by the prefrontal cortex.
79
Which tests can manifest deficits related to prefrontal cortex lesions?
* Rey Complex Figure * Rey Auditory Verbal Learning ## Footnote These tests assess various aspects of memory and executive functioning.
80
What type of information does memory for one’s personal past combine?
Combination of episodic and semantic information ## Footnote Episodic memory refers to the recollection of specific events, while semantic memory involves general knowledge.
81
Which brain network is associated with memory for one’s personal past?
Left lateralised network ## Footnote Referenced in studies by Maguire & Frith (2003a, b).
82
Which brain regions are involved in memory for personal past?
* Medial temporal lobe (hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus) * Medial posterior regions (posterior cingulate, retrosplenial cortex) * Ventromedial prefrontal cortex
83
What is involved in the encoding and retrieval of information regarding spatial orientation and environment?
Spatial navigation ## Footnote This includes the ability to navigate through and remember the layout of environments.
84
What types of spatial representations are mentioned?
* Allocentric * Egocentric
85
What is the relationship between posterior hippocampal volume and spatial navigation expertise?
Posterior hippocampal volume is correlated with spatial navigation expertise ## Footnote A larger volume is often associated with better navigation skills.
86
Which structures are dependent on memory and navigation of well-learned routes?
* Posterior parietal lobe (egocentric coordinates) * Retrosplenial and posterior cingulate (allocentric space) * Lingual gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus (landmarks)

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