MOTOR LEARNING Flashcards
(112 cards)
1
Q
Neurophysiology of Learning
A
- difficult to measure
- selective strengthening and pruning of neural pathways
- neural representations of body parts matched
- neural responsibility control delegated to cerebellum
2
Q
Experience - dependent plasticity
A
- synaptic pruning
- long term potentiation
- selective inhibition
- myelination
3
Q
Myelination
A
created by schawn cells which are a layer of fat along the axons to allow nerve cells to communicate with each other faster
4
Q
What are the 3 stages of fitts and posners motor learning model
A
cognitive
motor
skilled
transition between the 3, get more automated, make less mistakes, more effortless and efficient as you move through each of them
5
Q
Performance vs Learning
A
learning is the result of permanent change, not observable, and must monitor performance over a long period of time
performance is temporary, non-permanent changes and observable
performance may improve but that may not mean something has been learnt
6
Q
is performance improvement is measured over a long period of time then it is a
A
good indicator of learning
7
Q
4 types of performance curves
A
good performance
- negatively accelerating
- linear
poor performance
- positively accelerating
- s-shaped
8
Q
Performance Test
A
compare performance on a pretest with the posttest
9
Q
Learning Test
A
a retention test, learn something, take a break then test later to see if it was actually learnt
10
Q
Adaptability Test
A
perform a transfer test on a related motor skill following a retention interview
11
Q
Transfer of Learning
A
this is our ability to adapt. can you transfer the primary skill and modify it to learn another skill
either positive or negative effect on performance
lateral to similar skill fo same complexity, or vertical, applying it to simpler or harder tasks
12
Q
What is a skill
A
a complex movement phenomena with many interrelated factors:
perception
decision making
action
skills are learnt with practice, we are not born with them
13
Q
What are abilities
A
are a general movement attributes, genetically driven that effect performance such as speed or agility etc
abilities are a product of both learning and genetics whereas skills must be practiced
14
Q
What is Talent
A
a individuals special attribute or above average ability for a specific function or range of functions
talent is god given, you either have it or not, is it a myth, often miss defined
15
Q
Catalyst
A
talent is composed of some key abilities, those that are the catalyst that allows us to develop talents. exposure to these catalysts can be down to family, the environment etc
16
Q
When can humans learn skills
A
is is all about their readiness to learn and their critical periods. eg if you don’t learn skills at specific stages you will struggle to catch up later on
17
Q
Readiness to learn
A
we all develop at different times, which is when our CNS matures for us to learn specific things
18
Q
% of the people in the world that are right handed
A
87%
19
Q
Sensitive Period
A
when the effect of experience on the brain is particularly strong
20
Q
Individual Differences and Movement Preferences
A
difficult to synchronise movement eith others, as we all prefer to move in subtly different way =,
we all have preferred way of moving = intrinsic dynamics
21
Q
Degrees of Freedom
A
- role of a muscle is context dependent
- each relationship between muscle excitation and task demands unique
- humans utilise DOF as we adapt to different environments easily
- helps us protect our limbs, acts as breaks
- muscles act in so many ways, as a team/synergy
22
Q
Movement Variability
A
can be seen as inherent in complex biological system, with its limits
nearly impossible not to move with variability
23
Q
The Origin of the Motor Program
A
many researchers believe the motor commands are represented and stored in the CNS
24
Q
Memory Drum - who by and what was the theory
A
theory was that the motor commands were like a computer
by henry and Rodgers
25
Closed Loop Motor Programme (keele)
suggests that when we learn a skill we learn to use feedback to regulate how we move our body, and this closed loop is help in place by some agent in the brain using the feedback to modify the skill so next time we do it more effectively.
26
5 steps of processing demands of a movement
input - perception - decision making - execution - feedback
27
Indirect Perception (cognitive approach)
suggests that info around us is originally meaningless and that we need to interpret/interact with it for it to mean something. this is indirect as it is done within the CNS
knowledge of the world is provided by performing computations on these abstract symbols which explains why we can be fooled by visual illusions
28
Information Processing Model
the way of learning a skill, soon became apparent that there isn't motor programmes for each skill, but that key movements are modified for generalised motor programmes
29
Neurocomputational Theories
links different brain regions to specific functions
- the brain is more future focused, predicting what is going to happen as we receive the information
30
Cognitive Theoretical Constructs - EXAM Q - Commonalities between the 2 theores
1. representations or what we are perceiving (world and movement)
2. hierarchical control system, top to bottom control system
3. Capacity - limited storage of how much the brain can actually store
4. indirect perception - all assume that the brain has to be involved for perceiving an interaction
5. variability in noise and error. when you can perform a skill better the noise and error will decrease
31
Cognitive Approaches Summarised
- top down
- body is controlled by the brain
- first info is processed and understood then the motor programme is selected and released
- mix of predictive processing and reflective control of muscle
32
Ecological Psychology
actions are determined by many factors both internal and external
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Direct Perception (ecological approach)
- energy transformations uniquely specify environmental properties and events
- no intermediate stages between perception and action
34
Kelso
you movement systems find the best way to move
35
Ecological Dynamics Approach - Self Organisation vs constraint
constraints
- flexibility
- strength
- fitness
complex patterns are the consequence of self organisation when the system is placed under constraints
36
perception and ____ are very closely linked
action
37
Ecological Dynamics Summary
- bottom up
- individual in environment is a complex dynamical system
- co-ordination comes from many interacting constraints
- close interrelation between perceptual system and motor systems
38
what is the metaphor for ecological and then one for cognitive dynamics
- conductor
- computer
39
40
Affordances
is any organsims environment there are features that offer potential opportunities for behaviour. these offer depending on who you are, your differences, what the environment offers you to interact with. Humans perceive these features as affordances for action, hence affordances are specific to individual. they deter how we act
41
When to Blink, When to Think
the world is full of affordances for action, we need to decide which ones to take
- sensitivity to action boundaries is paramount to accurate affordances selection (good decision making). Good decision makers tend to consider only a small number of high quality options when time is limited, there have more effect visual search strategies, better domain of specific knowledge.
42
Variants and Invariants in Energy Flows
as we move our environment reveals patterns and structures. these determined how we perform our skill as we adapt to these patterns, eg wind, change you golf shot, and as we move we generate more information about our environment. energy flows generated by our movement cane be invariant so constant or change so variant
43
Direct vs Non Direct Perception
direct is the direct result of the info of the environment given, can specify the action whereas indirect perception is when complex decisions are needed
44
What are the two visual channels
Perception Pathway through the ventral stream that connects the primary visual cortex to the inferior temporal lobes
action pathway through the dorsal stream connect the primary visual cortex with the posterior parietal lobe
45
Memory
is the ability to recall things which allows us to benefit from experience
46
3 types of memory
short term
working
long term
47
short term memory
stored for only 20-30sec unless rehearsed
48
working memory
temploraliy stores recently presented memory, retrieve information from long term strogae to influence curretn problem
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long term memory
memories that are relatively permanent
50
Information Processing Model of Memory
sensory input - sensory memory - short term memory -transferring- long term memory
51
Chunking and Analogies
one way humans memorise information involving sequences is 'chunking' bits together or by presenting analogies eg. good as gold
52
Different Ways to Modify Techniques
- through repetitive practice coordination can become locked into a particular pattern (attractor), we attracted to move in this certain way
- the goals should be for the movement to become automatised and resilient to pressure and change in context
runner - ran to school with books in right arm, so when ran without them, he ran that same pattern then too
53
How can we get a learner to be able to modify their technique
explicit - conscious (instructions, feedback, demonstrations, manual guidence)
implicit - sub conscious (errorless learning, dual task, manipulate constraints etc)
54
6 types of motor skills
- development and growth
- independent living
- problem solving
- social skills
- creativity
- survival and adaption
55
What did Charles Darwin said about survival
it is not the strongest of the species that survives nor the most intelligent that survives. it is the one that is the most adaptable to change
56
21st Century Constraints
- globalisation
- social networking
- AI
- climate change
- urbanisation
- covid 19
57
Linear Approach to Learning Motor Skills
watch, copy, follow instructions and repeat
- large initial improvements which decrease with time and as you get better it gets difficult to improve
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Non Linear Approach to Learning Motor Skills
trial, error, discover, explore and adapt
a more recent approach, many drops and jumps as many individual differences
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Dynamics of Skill Learning
'historically motor learning has been viewed as a gradual, linear process, a 'ubiquitous' power law of practice
gradual maturation of neural processes that underpin movement control and skill learning
60
Skill Consolidation and Representation Approaches
transform initial fragile skills into stronger, more permanent shape
61
Non-Linear Pedagogy
views learning as complex and a non-linear process
- learners need to explore individualised movement solution and develop cognitive skills needed for game play
- movement variability can be functional for learning
- practice environment representative of skills to be learnt.
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Non-Linear Assumptions
- self organisation of behaviour guided by constraints
- non-proportional change
- movement variability functional
63
Children competency and Children
we are seeing a drop in children PA and motor competency
64
Your career is like....
riding a wave, you are waiting for the next opportunity
65
Physical Literacy Approach
the motivation, confidence, physical competence, knowledge, and understanding to value and take responsibility for engagement in physical activities for life
- individualised for everyone
- government is putting lots of money into skills as PA has decreased
- to value and choose being physically active for life
66
Teaching Approaches have the ability to
fix the PA issue with physical literacy
67
Direct Learning
a way that is shown that is interpreted as the optimal way for everyone to move like
68
Traditional PE Teaching
technique dominated
- correct demonstration
- skill isolation
- task decomposition
- repetition
69
how much time would be spent using direct teaching styles
80%
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Consequences of Traditional PE Teaching
- children have poor motor skill transfer due to too much isolating of skills/only practicing certain parts
- teacher dependent/little understanding
- limited motivation for sport
71
Why is isolating teaching techniques used by teachers
a logistical way to teach many people at once
72
Teaching Games for Understanding
this is when children learn via practice in modified games
- technical instruction takes form of questioning and problem solving in the context of a game
- gain game sense and tactics
73
TGFU benefits
- modified game
- children then enjoy the game
- teachers identify weakness and strengths
- tactics and love for the game are adapted
- hands off teaching
74
Constraints Led Approach CLA vs TGFU Similarities
- holistic
- individual differences
- hands off teaching
- design of environment
75
Constraints Led Approach CLA vs TGFU Differences
- overall aim
- use of questioning
- skill progressions
- emphasis on tactile principles
76
Teaching Though Games Benefits/Challenges
B
- tactics
- engagement
- learner centred
- no correct way to move
- hands off teaching
- better skill transfer !!!!
C
- can take time
- challenging to control
- need to know constraints well
- needs effective questioning
77
Smith et al (2021) on Game Learning
- learning within games develops identity, belonging and communities
- solve movement problems not fixed ways of moving
- promotes student centred learning
- games can also develop social, cultural and ethical competency
78
How we practice influences
learning effectiveness
79
How practice influences learning effectiveness
how much and often we practice
what we practice
organisational skills
consolidation techniques
80
Amount of Practice
- early improvement in skill acquisition is generally large and becomes smaller with additional practice
- more learning will occur with more practice
- plateaus in performance is likely during skill acquisition
- motor learning is enhanced when learners control aspects of their practice
81
More Practice is Better
this is the popular assumption as you develop more sophisticated programs
- 10 year (10000 hr) rule
more is better but it isn't the most important part
82
It takes 10 years to become an expert - myth
due to the accumulation of deliberate practice but this study is done through a cross sectional study
83
What should we practice
- the specific skill but not only this
- transfer or practice info and movement
- it should reflect the performance environment
- perserve information movement couplings in practice design
84
Variability of Practice
varying key parameters of the movement patterns used to perform a motor skill
- invariant features
- schemas
variable practice = better retention and transfer
85
Invariant Features
consistent characteristics of pattern that should not change despite parameters change
86
Schema
representations of a set of rules linking parameters to outcomes
87
Part-Whole Practice
breaking a skill down into parts - task decomposition, for better task simplification
but it may break important perception action coupling
88
Task Difficulty
changing task difficulty influences practice effectiveness, but it should be modified to meet the demands of the task for the learner optimally (different for each learner, don't want it to be to hard or to easy)
relationship between task difficulty and availability information
89
Distribution of Practice
Mass - longer practice sessions and many practice trials
Distributed - shorter practice sessions and fewer practice trials
continuous skills usually benefit from distributed practice
massed practice can create performance ceiling effects (allow for improvement), but shorter/distributed session are more effective than mass, but it takes longer. However task and inter-trial spacing matters
90
Mass Practice May Speed Up Learning But
causes fatigue, reduces cognitive effort and less time for memory consolidation
91
Practice Organisation
this is the order you chose to learn the skill, this is not the same as variable practice though
92
Practice Organisation and the amount of Contextual Interference
high = random order of trials of all task variations
high/med = random repetition of short blocks of trials of each task variations
med/low = serial repetition of short blocks of trials of each task variation
low = non-repeated blocks of trials of each task variation
93
Periodisation of Skill Training
when approaching a performance think about your environment to help enhance it but during practice time think about the variability you might experience
94
Practice Consolidation Strategies
- what you do after practice effects your learning
- tasks undertaken after practice impact or interfere with learning
- sleep soon, 5-7hours after practice helps learning as it helps consolidate neural processes
other things like drugs, implants can also help
95
Attention
is critical for effective decision making, motor performance and learning
capacity - attentional capacity is not limitless
selectivity - attention is selected either intentionally or incidentally
focus - attention is wide of narrow and internal or external
96
Theories of Attentional Capacity - Single Channel Filter Theories
tasks are accomplished in serial order
the system can process only one task at a time
97
Selective Attention
due to limited attentional capacity we filter out less relevant information to prioritise the most relevant information
98
Theories of Attentional Capacity - Multiple Resource Theories
- several attention mechanisms each with a limited capacity
modality & perception
- if tasks require a shared mechanism they will be difficult to perform simultaneously
99
Attentional Capacity
is critical to understanding the importance of separation of performance
as some skills become automatised the individual can attend to other aspects of the environment
100
Expert Like Vision - Efficient Visual Search
attention is guided to target item immediately, making the rest of the scene irrelevant
101
Expert Like Vision - Extended Visual Span
pre-attentive processing of the scene before selective attention is directed to specific locations
102
Expert Like Vision - Selective Attention
attention is guided by the information stored in long term memory
103
Focus of Attention - Four Styles
1. internal broad
2. internal narrow
3. external broad
4. external narrow
narrow = to do specifically with the related task
broad = focus on the whole limb instead of a specific joint
external focus of a attention when learning
it is bad to only think about your body movement alot as it breaks down some of the automatic pathways
104
Attentional Focus - Motor Learning
- if the task is complex learning advantages of external focus across a wide range of skill levels
- simple tasks are less benefit of external focus
- early learners need to link effects to movements but not just focus on outcome
- more skilled performance benefit from focussing on the outcome
105
Inattention Blindness
due to selective attention it is easy to miss information in perceptual tasks with high cognitive demands
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What is Emotion
a mental state the arises spontaneously rather than through conscious effort and is often accompanied by physiological changes
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Movement is
emotional
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Movement is Emotional
- how we move is an expression of ourselves
- our movements are flavoured by emotion
- we can perceive different types of emotion from biological motion along (point like displays)
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The inconvenient truth of emotions
traditionally viewed as
- irrational
- instinctive
- transition
- negative
- better to be removed from practice until a skill is well established
they are often down played and are hard to measure
110
Emotion Movement Science
mechanistic
- humans are compared to machines
- individual differences are down played
ecological
- natural process
- emotions are to complex
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Controlling Emotions
- accept the emotions
- recognise the barriers and opportunities
- manages the emotions (mental skills)
- improve match between practice and competition
- prepare for the unexpected
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