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PN1002 Test > Neuropathology > Flashcards

Neuropathology Flashcards

(75 cards)

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1
Q

Give 4 physical changes associated with brain ageing

A

Cortical density decreases as the cortex thins
Brain mass shrinks especially in the frontal lobe and hippocampus
White and Grey matter of the brain decrease in volume
Blood vessel changes - artery hardening (atherosclerosis) and plaque build up

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2
Q

What is spina bifida occulta?

A

A form of spina bifida in which there is a small gap in the spine, but no opening or sac in the back

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3
Q

In spinal cord injuries, what is tetraplegia, also known as quadriplegia?

A

All four limbs, trunk, and pelvic organs are affected by paralysis

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4
Q

Give 3 psychological changes associated with ageing

A

Decrease in processing speed
Reduced memory efficiency
Reduced attention

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5
Q

During development, what structure will the cerebellum arise from?

A

Rhombencephalon (Hindbrain)/Metencephalon

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6
Q

What is dopamine’s role in the striatum?

A

To regulate movement by inhibiting striatal neurons

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7
Q

What does the Cerebrum do?

A

Contains cortex and numerous subcortical structures e.g. Hippocampus

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8
Q

What is the Basal Ganglia?

A

Subcortical nuclei responsible primarily for motor control

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9
Q

What does the Parietal Lobe do?

A

It integrates sensory information

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10
Q

What does the Cerebellum do?

A

Controls coordination of voluntary movements

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11
Q

What does the Spinal cord do?

A

Transmits messages between the brain and periphery

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12
Q

What does the medulla oblongata do?

A

It is responsible for autonomic (involuntary) movements

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13
Q

What does the Hippocampus do?

A

Controls learning and memory

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14
Q

What does the Amygdala do?

A

Processes emotional information

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15
Q

What does the Pituitary Gland do?

A

Hormone production

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16
Q

What does the Hypothalamus do?

A

Links nervous system to endocrine system

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17
Q

What does the Thalamus do?

A

Relays motor and sensory systems to the cerebral cortex

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18
Q

What does the Frontal Lobe do?

A

Controls cognitive skills

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19
Q

What does the Corpus Collosum do?

A

It ensures both sides of the brain can communicate

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20
Q

What does the Temporal Lobe do?

A

Controls sense perception, language, and memory

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21
Q

What is cleavage?

A

When an embryo divides into multiple smaller cells without changing its overall size

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22
Q

What is Gastrulation?

A

When the 3 germ layers are established in an implanted zygote - the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm

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23
Q

What is Neurulation?

A

When the neural plate bends to become the neural tube and form the future CNS

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24
Q

What is the notochord?

A

The part of a developing zygote that will become the spine

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25
What is the neural plate?
The part of a developing zygote that will fold to create the neural tube
26
What is the neural tube?
The part of the developing zygote which will become the CNS
27
What is the prosencephalon?
The part of the embryo which becomes the forebrain (Cerebrum, Eye cup, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and Epithalamus)
28
What is the mesencephalon?
The part of the embryo which becomes the midbrain
29
What is the rhombencephalon?
The part of the embryo which becomes the hindbrain (pons, cerebellum, and medulla oblongata)
30
What percentage of the adult brain does a baby have at birth?
25%
31
What percentage of the adult brain does a 1 year old have?
70%
32
What percentage of the adult brain does a 3 year old have?
85%
33
Name 3 things which happen during brain development in infancy
The brain increases rapidly in size The connections between neurons and between neurons and target fields increase **Lots** of myelination
34
What happens during brain development in early childhood?
The brain increases in size to 95% by 5 years old Synaptic pruning refines connections, increasing brain efficiency
35
What brain region do teens rely on for emotional responses?
The amygdala
36
What causes teens to undertake more high-risk behaviour?
The underdevelopment of the ventral striatum
37
What happens in neurulation to cause neural tube defects?
The neural tube does not close correctly in the region of the spinal cord
38
Give 4 causes of Spina Bifida and other NTDs
Maternal prepregnant obesity Maternal pre-gestational insulin-dependent diabetes The fungal product fumonisin Monozygotic twinning
39
List 3 treatments for spina bifida
Early or prenatal surgery Physiotherapy Mobility aids
40
What neuroanatomical and cellular differences are there in an autistic brain compared to a neurotypical brain?
No obvious ones!
41
What is the early postnatal brain overgrowth theory?
The idea that accelerated early brain growth followed by decelerated growth and normal brain volume by adulthood is associated with autism
42
What is the signalling imbalance theory?
The theory that the autistic brain is hyper-excitable, linked to the fact that many autistic people have epilepsy and unusually frequent spikes of activity during sleep
43
What is the excess serotonin hypothesis?
The theory that autistic people have unusually high levels of serotonin (however this has little evidence as 3 in 4 autistic people have normal serotonin levels)
44
What is Connectivity theory?
The theory that communication is de-synchronised between brain regions in autistic people
45
What is telomere theory?
The theory that cells split and lose the end of DNA again and again over time, causing degeneration with age
46
What is programmed ageing?
The theory that ageing is designed in our DNA like womb growth
47
What is the current consensus as to how/why ageing works?
The byproducts of biological reactions can damage cells, and the body has defence mechanisms to protect against this, but over time the damaged cellular components accumulate causing changes
48
Why does white matter decrease with age?
Because late myelinating areas e.g. the frontal lobes de-myelinate earlier, accelerating cognitive decline
49
Why does grey matter decrease with age?
Either because of neuronal cell death or because of decreased cell size and changes in the non-neuronal population
50
Name 5 ways we can keep our brains healthy as we age
Social interaction Good mental wellbeing Limiting drinking and smoking Exercising Having a good diet
51
What are Lewy bodies and what do they do?
Bags of protein which may be an attempt to prevent cell death or may be toxic (we don't know!)
52
How does the loss of dopaminergic signalling from the substantial nigra lead to PD symptoms?
One of dopamine's roles is to regulate movements by inhibiting striatal neurons, so in the absence of dopamine, movements are no longer regulated creating PD symptoms
53
What is Levodopa?
A drug to combat PD which is a building block of dopamine
54
What are COMT inhibitors?
Drugs to combat PD which block levodopa breakdown
55
What are MAO-B inhibitors?
Drugs to combat PD which make better use of endogenous dopamine
56
What are dopamine agonists?
Drugs to combat PD which mimic dopamine
57
What is amantadine?
A drug to combat PD which blocks glutamate
58
What are anticholinergics?
Drugs to combat PD which block acetylcholine-mediated activity
59
Name 3 changes in the brain with Alzheimer's Disease
Severely enlarged ventricles Severe cortical shrinkage Severe shrinkage of the hippocampus
60
What are plaques in the brain (in relation to AD)?
An accumulation of amyloid beta 1-42
61
What are tangles?
Accumulations of hyper-phosphorated tau
62
What are acetylcholine esterase inhibitors?
Drugs to combat AD for memory loss
63
What is memantine?
A drug which regulates glumate to combat AD
64
What is the function of the dorsal horns?
They orientate us within the spinal cord and contain sensory synapses
65
What is the function of ventral horns?
They orientate us within the spinal cord and contain motorneurons
66
What happens when the patellar tendon is struck with a reflex hammer?
Stretch receptors in the quadriceps femoris send electrical impulses to the dorsal root ganglion The signal travels to the spinal cord and is then relayed back to tell the quadriceps femoris to contract and the biceps femoris to extend causing the leg to raise
67
What is a complete spinal cord injury?
A complete loss of sensation and motor function below the level of injuryr
68
What is an incomplete spinal cord injury?
When some function is retained at or below the point of the injury - this can be either unilateral or bilateral
69
What is paraplegia?
When all or part of the trunk, legs, and pelvic organs are affected by paralysis
70
What benefits can surgery have in spinal cord injuries?
Removing fragments of bones, foreign objects, herniated disks, or fractured vertebrae that can be compressing the spine Stabilising the spine to prevent future pain or deformity
71
What benefit can hypothermia have for spinal cord injuries?
Lowering body temperature can prevent swelling and inflammation
72
Describe the 3 layers of the cerebellar cortex
Outer layer - molecular layer comprising axons from the other 2 layers and a few other cell types Middle layer - Purkinje cell layer of large neurons with dramatic dendritic tree Inner layer - granule cell layer of small, densely packed neurons
73
Which cells receive excitatory input from mossy fibres?
Granule cells
74
Give 3 properties of Purkinje cells
They receive excitatory input from parallel fibres They receive excitatory input from climbing fibres They are the sole source of output from the cerebral cortex
75
List the 3 main functions of the cerebellum
Planning movements and motor learning Receiving proprioceptive information Controlling balance and ocular reflexes (fixing on a target)

PN1002 Test (3 decks)

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