Neuroscience Basics

Question 1

What are the organizing principles of the brain?

Answer 1

thats what the lecture will try to respond

Question 2

What is Neuroscience?

Answer 2

Researchers in the field of neuroscience—the study of the brain and the rest of the nervous system—overwhelmingly believe that the brain is the seat of learning and
memory.

Historically, most early studies of learning and memory focused on observable behavior rather than on the brain and how it functions.

Question 3

————

Localization of function versus equipotentiality: where do we stand?

Answer 3

• in the middle we belive there is some localization but it is also works at a network(regions of the brain work together)

Question 4

What is Neuroscience?

Answer 4

cognitive neuroscience:
* focusing on research in humans
* we can understand humans mind better by using langugue

behavioural neuroscience
* focuses on research in non-human animals.
* we are strictly using bhevaiour -brain activity (can not ask them what they are thinkig!)

Question 5

The Human Brain: Orientation

Answer 5

• Superior: top of the brain
• Anterior front of the brain
• Posteriorback of the brain
• Inferirorbottom of the brain

Question 6

another name for brain orientation (need to know as well)

Answer 6

• Dorsal: top of the brain
• Rostral front of the brain
• Caudalback of the brain
• Ventralbottom of the brain

Question 7

Cortex:

Answer 7

brain tissue covering the top and sides of the brain, involved in many functions

Question 8

Brainstem:

Answer 8

• **connects the rest of the brain to the spinal cord **
• plays critical roles in regulating automatic functions (e.g., breathing and body temperature)

Question 9

Cerebellum

Answer 9

• back of the brain
• regulation and coordination of complex voluntary muscular
  movement

Question 10

Two Hemispheres

Answer 10

left and right

Question 11

slices of the brain

Answer 11

• chrono slice : slicing the brain in the middle ( left to right) hipocampus
• horizontal slice: slicing and dividing top and bottom of the brain
• Sagittal slice: pictures of the brain uses this slice in anatomy text books

• why ? brain scans and for reserch
• can do when someone is alive or dead

Question 12

The Human Brain: Lobes

Answer 12

Frontal lobe: (front)
* plan
* perform actions
* among other things

Temporal lobe: (side)
* language
* auditory processing
* learning
* memory,
* among other things

Parietal lobe: (top left)
* processing somatosensory (touch) inputs
* among other things

Occipital lobe: (back)
* important for visual processin

Question 13

Comparative Neuroanatomy

Answer 13

• Humans have a disproportionately
  large cerebral cortex.
  (Larger cortical proportion in other
  animals considered clever, such as
  dolphins and chimps)
• Brains vary both in overall size, and in relative proportions.
• this May related to specialization. Birds have bigger proportioned cerebellums than humans. This may relate to the motor coordination necessary for fligh
• Bigger isn’t necessarily better. Elephant brain is bigger (~5 kg) then Human brain (~1.4 k)

Question 14

Incoming Stimuli: Sensory Pathways into the Brain

Answer 14

Regions of the cerebral cortex are
specialized for processing difference sensory info:
* light (primary visual cortex),
* sound (primary auditory cortex)
* sensation (primary somatosensory cortex).
* Other regions are specialized for generating movements (primary motor cortex)

Question 15

where these primary cortext are

Answer 15

• primary mototr cortext - top of the brain
• primsry somatosensory cortext( top of the brain
• primary auditory cortext(side of the brain)\
• primary visual cortext- back of the brain

Question 16

Grey Matter versus White Matter

Answer 16

• white matter - axons
• grey matter- cell body

Question 17

White Matter Paths

Answer 17

we can image them in different ways(colorful ways)

Question 18

Some Brain Regions Involved in Memory

Answer 18

Many of these are “subcortical”
* basal ganglia - middle
* thalamus - -next to/ na ponta do basal ganglia/em baixo do basal
* amygdala - bolinha no final do hipocampus
* Hipocampus - continuacao do basal que conecta com a amygdala/parte de baixo do basal

try to fo the diagrem in the slide

Question 19

central nervous system”

Answer 19

• Brain and spinal cord
• The “central nervous system” connects to the body (organs,
  muscles) (peripheral nervous system)

Question 20

The Human Brain - What is it made of?

Answer 20

1. Close to 100 billion neurons
2. Other types of cells (numerous)
3. Blood vessels

there is many ways a neuron can look like

Question 21

(1) Neurons

Answer 21

The prototypical neuron has three main parts:

• Dendrites are input areas that
  receive signals from other neurons
• The cell body integrates signals from the dendrites
• One or more axons, which
  transmit signals to other neurons

Question 22

Other cells: Glia

Answer 22

Glia: cells of various types. They provide functional or structural support to neurons. Some contribute to changes in connections between neurons

○ Astrocytes

○ Oligodendrocytes

○ Does glia have other functions? More evidence is needed.

Question 23

Astrocytes

Answer 23

line the outer surface of blood vessels (in the brain)

Question 24

Oligodendrocytes

Answer 24

○ Oligodendrocytes wrap the axons in myelin, a fatty substance that insulates electrical signals transmitted by neurons that makes the transmission faster

Question 25

Blood vessels

Answer 25

blood vessels very important to provide air and nutrients to the brain

Question 26

How do Neurons Communicate?

Answer 26

The **Synapse**!

Question 27

the Synapse

Answer 27

● **Synapse** –specialized for chemical communication between axon and dendrite, where the two cells draw very close but **do not quite touch** ● **Presynaptic side** – The **axon** has vesicles **loaded with neurotransmitters.** ● **Postsynaptic side** – The **dendrite** is lined with **receptors to detect the neurotransmitter**

Question 28

**neurotransmitters**

Answer 28

● **chemical substances that can cross a synapse to affect the activity of a nearby (postsynaptic) neuron** ● Several different chemicals act as neurotransmitters ○ Glutamate, gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin

Question 29

**Receptor**

Answer 29

● are molecules embedded in the surface of the postsynaptic neuron. * They are **specialized to bind with and respond to certain neurotransmitters** **(like a lock and key)**

Question 30

**Excitatory**

Answer 30

● Some neurotransmitters—glutamate, for example—are excitatory. * They activate receptors **that tend to increase the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing**

Question 31

**Inhibitory**

Answer 31

* Other neurotransmitters— such as GABA—are inhibitory. * They activate receptors that tend to **decrease the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing.**

Question 32

**Neuromodulator:** ## Footnote a subtype of neutrosmetters

Answer 32

* **a neurotransmitter that modulates activity in a large number of neurons rather than at a single synapse.** ○ Example: Dopamine

Question 33

The Plot Thickens

Answer 33

● When an action potential occurs, there is a lot of stuff happening ○ Calcium enters the cell and that triggers neurotransmission ○ Neurotransmission, in turn, can spur an action potential ● **Neuronal communication is electrical AND chemical!**

Question 34

How does this all relate to learning and memory?

Answer 34

● Learning and memory researchers have focused **almost exclusively on understanding the the ability of synapses to change as a result of experience (synaptic plasticity)** ● **“Hebbian learning”**: any physical change in neurons can affect neural communication, that is, the connections between neurons ○ **Learning that involves strengthening connections between neurons that work together** ● **These ideas were more hypothetical** at the time of Donald Hebb (strong evidence came later) ● “Neurons that fire together wire together” - neuron firing changes as consequence of experience

Question 35

**Long-term potentiation (LTP):**

Answer 35

* **a process in which synaptic transmission (between neurons) becomes more effective as a result of recent, repeated activity** - think as a habit ● LTP is believed to represent a type of synaptic plasticity, which could be a neural mechanism for learning

Question 36

**Long-Term Potentiation: Original Studies**

Answer 36

(A) Researchers used an electrode to stimulate the axons of presynaptic neurons. A second electrode was used to record the activity of postsynaptic neurons. (B) Initially, **weak stimulation caused only a mild response in the postsynaptic neuron**. But **after** a **burst of high-frequency stimulation, the postsynaptic neuron responded more strongly to the weaker stimulation and this persisted**