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1
Q

what is chronic kideny deases

A

slow, chronic decline of renal functions. This when >75% kidney function is lost.
caused by damage accumulated from other chronic diseases or AKI
irreversible

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2
Q

what does kidney failure cause

A 
accumaltion of waste
Water imbalance  
Salt imbalance 
Long-term blood pressure out of control 
Acid/base imbalance of blood
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3
Q

what is acute kidney injury

A

sudden damage to the kidneys that causes them tonot workproperly. It can range from minor loss of kidney function to complete kidney failure.
normally a complication of another serious illness.
usually reversible if treated quickly

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4
Q

what does renal failure lead to

A

Impaired renal excretion results in accumulation of waste and toxins in body fluids

Leads to disruption in endocrine and metabolic function, fluid, electrolyte and acid-base disturbances

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5
Q

what is renal failure

A

When kidneys unable to remove body’s metabolic waste

Unable to perform regulatory functions

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6
Q

what is the biliary trees

A

biliary tree is a system of vessels that directs these secretions from the liver, gallbladder and pancreas through a series of ducts into the duodenum.

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7
Q

where is bile stored

A

The liver makes bile which is stored in the gallbladder.

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8
Q

what is bile

A

The bile ducts carry bile. This is a fluid that helps to digest food by breaking down fat.

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9
Q

what is the bile duct

A

The bile ducts are part of the digestive system. They are the tubes that connect the liver and gallbladder to the small bowel.

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10
Q

what is the role of motor neurons

A

controlling the various activities of the body that involve muscle movement including walking, running, speaking, swallowing, breathing and gripping

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11
Q

what is the treatment of a mallory - weiss tear

A 
Self limiting in 80-90% of cases (stop bleeding and heal on its own)
injection or a heat treatment to stop bleeding
Surgical repair (rare)
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12
Q

what are the signs and symptoms of a mallort weiss tear

A 
haematoemesis vomiting of bright red or coffee grounds blood
Melaena (stool with blood) 
- dysphagia/odynophagia
anaemia
fatigue, dizziness, faintness
shortness of breath
abdominal or chest pain
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13
Q

what are the causes of a Mallory-Weiss Tear

A

Causes:
violent coughing, retching, vomiting and/or straining (common cause)
hiatal hernia (rare)
childbirth (rare)

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14
Q

what is a traumatic brain injury

A

an external force results in temporary or permeant brain dysfunction

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15
Q

give some signs and symptoms of a traumatic brain injury

A

Traumatic brain injury can have wide-ranging physical and psychological effects. Some signs or symptoms may appear immediately after the traumatic event, while others may appear days or weeks later

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16
Q

who’s most at risk of a traumatic brain injury

A

The people most at risk of traumatic brain injury include:
Children, especially newborns to 4-year-olds
Young adults, especially those between ages 15 and 24
Adults age 60 and older
Males in any age group

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17
Q

what causes a dramatic brain injury

A

Traumatic brain injury is usually caused by a blow or other traumatic injury to the head or body. The degree of damage can depend on several factors, including the nature of the injury and the force of impact.
Common events causing traumatic brain injury include the following:
Falls.
Vehicle-related collisions.
Violence.
Sports injuries.
Explosive blasts and other combat injuries.
Penetrating wounds
Severe blows to the head with shrapnel or debris, and falls or bodily collisions with objects following a blast.

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18
Q

what are the symptoms of Caudia equina

A

Urinary retention
Urinary and/or fecal incontinence.
“Saddle anethesia” sensory disturbance, which can involve the anus, genitals and buttock region.
Weakness or paralysis of usually more than one nerve root.
Pain in the back and/or legs
Sexual dysfunction.

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19
Q

what are the causes of goitre

A

Iodine Deficiency:

Graves’ Disease:
In this condition the immunes system mistakes the thyroid gland for foreign and beings to attack which causes it to produce excess thyroxine.s.

autoimmune disease that can cause damage to the thyroid

Thyroid Cancer

Pregnancy

Inflammation

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20
Q

what is the role of the thyroid

A

The role of the thyroid is to produce two main hormones: thyroxine triiodothyronine (T-3). The role of these is to regulate the metabolism

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21
Q

what is goitre

A

Goitre is an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland.

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22
Q

what are the signs and symptoms of goitre

A

A swelling at the bottom of the neck that might be obvious to see as well as palpate

  • Tight feeling in throat
  • Coughing
  • Hoarseness in voice
  • Dysphagia
  • Difficult in breathing
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23
Q

what is the risk factors to goitre

A

-Iodine deficiency
-Female
-Over 40
-Medical history of autoimmune diseases
-Pregnancy and menopause
-Medications such as amiodarone and psychiatric drugs containing lithium
–Radiation exposure

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24
Q

what is gastric motility

A

Paralysis of the stomach (fails to empty content into intestine)

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25
what is the cause of gastric motility
- diabetes (most common cause -1/3 of the cases) - neurological disorders such as MS, Parkinson’s disease - connective tissue disorders - post surgical complications
26
what are the signs and symptoms of gastric motility
Stomach/abdominal pain, bloating, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, early satiety, malnourishment, dehydration, weight loss, fatigue
27
how to diagnose gastric motility
Gastric Emptying Study (GES) using radioactive material traced by a scanner Upper endoscopy Barium x-rays Wireless motility capsules (SmartPill)
28
what is the treatment for gastric motility
Dietary changes (small, frequent meals low in fat and fibre) Medication to increase motility Symptom management medications Surgeries and/or feeding tubes, total parenteral nutrition
29
what is alcoholic induced liver disease
alcohol is sent to the stomach which is sent to the liver for processing the liver breaks down alcohol leading to the liver making more fatty acids this causes the liver to get large, heaver, greasy and tender
30
what is the treatment to jaundice
phototherapy
31
what are the causes jaundice
viral hepatitis drugs / alcohol cirrhosis (permeant damage to the liver )
32
explain the pathophysiology of jaundice
billrubin red blood cells breakdown when they are old this leaves high levels of uncondrigated bilirubin in the blood this is then sent to the liver to congregate the bilirubin if the liver is damages and cannot conjugate bilirubin leads to an increase of bilirubin in the blood
33
what is jaundice
yellowing of the skin and eyes
34
what are the symptoms of hepatitis
fever nausea enlarged liver causing pain
35
what is the pathophysiology of hepatitis
virus targets the cells in the liver infect the cells so immune cells attack the liver they recognise these proteins shouldn't be their cytotoxic killing happens cuasing inflammation and liver death
36
what is hepatitis
inflammation of the liver due to a virus
37
what is the pathophysiology of portal hypertension
obstruction prevents blood flow blood accumulates in the portal system causing pressure to rise above 12mmhg (this causes portal hypertension) this stops the liver being able to perform its function approitay
38
what is portal hypertension
high blood pressure in the hepatic portal system
39
what are the symptoms of hemochrombtosis
joint pain adominal pain fatigue bonze or grey skin
40
what are the complication of hemochrombtosis
liver gets mostly left over iron leading to liver choruses comlication depends on where iron is absorbed
41
explain the pathophysiology of hemochrombtosis
extra iron is disposeted in organs mostly the liver slowly damages the cells and causes cell death this is due to a genetic mutation in chromosome 6 leading to unable to regulate the iron being let into the blood stream therefore to much is let in
42
at what age is hemochrombtosis diagnose
age 50 plus in men 10-20 years after the menopause
43
what is hemochrombtosis
metabolic disorder where the body absorbs to much iron- it leads to elevated iron in the blood
44
what is the function of the kidney's
Removal of waste (anything not necessary or toxic) Water balance (water in = water out) Salt balance (homeostasis of blood osmolarity) Long-term blood pressure homeostasis Acid/base balance of blood
45
what are the signs and symptoms of kidney stones
Pain Haematuria (blood in urine) Raised temperature Nausea and Vomiting
46
explain the pathophysiology of anaphylaxis
these cells are preformed to the thing and individual is allergic to an antigen enters the body- what they are allergic to helper t-cells that suited for the specific antigen recognise the antigen immune cells comes as back up from a B-cell (these produce antibodies) makes IgE cells- these bind to cells that produce inflammatory agents (Mast cells) this causes hives, swelling and closing of the airways
47
what is secondary hyperthyroidism
causes by overstimulation by the thyroid- pituarty producing to much TSH
48
what is primary hyperthryoism
causes by thyroid pathology- abnormally producing to much thyroid hormone
49
what is hyperthyroidism
``` anxiety sweating tachycardia weight loss fatigue frequent loss stools ```
50
what is a thyroid storm
more acute severe presentation- more serve symptoms
51
what is the pathophysiolgy of hyperthyroidism
increase synthesis and secretion of bodys t3 and t4
52
what is hyperthyroidism
elevated thyroid hormone levels- thyroid producing to much thyroxine
53
what is the causes of Addison's disease
autoimmune destruction - immune system attack healthy tissues in adrenal Cortex
54
what is primary adrenal insufficiency
adrenal cortex gets progressively damaged over time
55
what is Addison's disease
adrenal gland can't produce enough horses the body needs
56
what is anaphylaxis ?
immune response that the body uses against allergies antigens
57
What is a Mallory- Weiss tear
Test of the tissues in the lower esophagus
58
What is Pyclonephritis
Inflammation of the kidney that develops quickly—>usually a result of bacteria infection The infection starts at the lower urinary system and makes it’s way towards the kidney Common cause:upper urinary infections, faliure of the valve that stops Urine flowing backwards
59
Risk factors for Pyclonephritis
Female sex Sexual intercourse Catheters
60
How does Pyclonephritis happen
Starts by bacteria attaching to the epithelium in the kidney—>triggers and inflammatory response—>white blood cells are weed out
61
Symptoms of Pyclonephritis
``` Fever Chills Pain when peeing Nausea Vomiting ```
62
Treatments for Pyclonephritis
Antibiotics | Staying hydrated
63
Kidney stones
Substances stick together forming crystals or stones—>kidney removes excessive calcium into our urine—>builds up and sticks together—>overtime forms a stone 3 step process Crystallisation Aggravation Crystal growth Eventually get too large to pass
64
Diagnosis of kidney stones
Urine analysis Ultra sound CT X-ray
65
Risk factors of Kidney stones
Male Age Family history Dehydration
66
Overall meaning of cardiomyopathy
Cardiomyopathy is a general term used for a disease of the heart muscle, where the walls of the heart chambers have became stretched,thickens or stiffens
67
Dilated cardiomyopathy
The muscle walls become stretched and thinner, so they cannot contract properly to pump blood
68
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
The heart muscle enlarge and the walls of the heart chambers thicken, the heart chambers reduce in size and cannot hold as much blood therefore meaning the walls cannot relax and may stiffen
69
Restrictive cardiomyopathy
The walls of the main heart chambers become stiff and rigid and cannot relax properly after contracting
70
Polycystic kidney disease
Genetic disease which the kidneys become filled with hundreds of cysts causing them all to be larger They develop in both the outer layer(cortex) and the inner layer(medulla)
71
What is the pathophysiology of polycystic kidney disease
Cysts fill with liquid and get bigger overtime—>this can cause blood vessels to be compromised—>this can starve the blood vessels of oxygen—>can lead to hypotension
72
Meningitis
Affects the menigines 3 protective layers around the brain and spinal cord “inflammation of the meniges” two inner layers Cerebrospinal fluid: clear watery fluid which is pumped around the spinal cord and brain, cushions them for impact. Inflammation trigger autoimmune-where the body attacks itself
73
Direct spread of meningitis
Pathogen gets inside the skull or the spine and penetrates the meniges, ends up in the cerebral spinal fluid Causes: pathogens comes up the nose or through the skin Skull fracture: bacteria, virus, fungal Hematogenus spread-Pathogens enters the blood stream—>moves through the endothelial cells into the blood vessels—>gets into the celebrum spine fluid—>it’s then starts to multiply—>white blood cells then respond
74
Symptoms of meningitis
``` Headache Fevers Neck stiffness Photophobea Altered mental state ``` Diagnosis Kernigs spine Lumbar puncture Treatment Antibiotics,steroids,drug treatment
75
What is Multiple sclerosis
It effects the brain and spinal cord Myelin is the sheath that surrounds the axons of the neurons, allows them to send electrical impulses What happens during MS The immune system attacks and destroys then myelin—>leads to a breakdown in communication—>leads to sensory,motor and cognitive problems—>blood brain barrier only lets certain molecules and cells through—>immune cells are only allowed through if they have the right surface molecule—>once t-cells get through and activates on the mylin, it sends more t-cells to the sight—>t-cells release cytokines that help dictate the blood vessels allow loads of immune cells in response—>they then cause inflammation and release antibodies that start to damage the mylien—>this leaves behind areas of scare tissue
76
Causes and symptoms of Multiple sclerosis
``` Genetics Female Gene coding Environmental factors infection Vitamin D deficiency ``` ``` Symptoms Difficulty in speaking Tremors Involuntary eye moment Fatigue Loss of balance/dizziness ``` Diagnosis MRI scans Treatment Medications Immunosuppressants
77
B-cells and T-cells
B-cells recognise antigens Engulfs, antigens once they are binded to receptors—>realises lymphoids that multiply by mitosis allowing duplication of b-cells—>also releases plasma that releases antibodies Cytokines-signalling proteins—> leads to inflammation—>recit and activate more cells of immune system T-cells have t-cell receptors that are specific to a single antigen
78
What two hormones control the glucose in the body
Insulin and glucagon
79
What is glucose
A source of energy
80
What is insulin
Hormone produced by beta cells in the pancreas | Can bind to insulin receptors in cell membranes allows glucose to be transported into the cell
81
What is glucagon
Realised by alpha cells Gets liver to generate new molecules of glucose Breaks down into glucose All gets into blood
82
Diabetes type 1 and 2
Type 1- Dosent produce enough insulin, type 4 hypersensitivity response, where T-cells attack the pancreas in particular, the beta cells, means less insulin is produced and glucose remains in the blood as it can’t enter the beta cells TYPE 2- bosh tissues don’t respond well to insulin, body providing enough insulin but cells don’t react to transport->cells are insulin resistant->leads to body realising more insulin to get the same effect->does this by increasing beta cells attempt to make more insulin
83
Diabetic ketoacidosis
Ketone bodies-increase acidity In blood->this can have major effects on your body->lead to laboured breathing->reduce co2 to overall reduce acidity Symptoms-nausea,vomiting,mental changes,fruity breath Treatment-fluids for dehydration,insulin to lower blood glucose levels,replacement of electrolytes Hypoglycaemia-glucose Levels low Hyperglycaemia-glucose level high Hypoglycaemia-imbalance in glucose production and use of glucose( can lead to death) Causes Tumors Metabolic errors Excessive insulin ``` Symptoms Tremors Shaking Tachycardia Same symptoms as a stroke ```
84
Symptoms and risk factors for diabetes
``` Symptoms Hungry(polyphagia) Increased wee(Glucose wee) Glucose wee(polypharia) Increase thirst(polyclipsa) ``` Risk factors Obesity Lack of exercise Hypertension
85
What is hyperglycaemia
Medical term for high blood sugar It can effect people with type 1 and 2 diabetes as well as pregnant women with gestational diabetes Not injecting insulin properly or expired insulin Not using enough insulin or oral diabetes medication Being inactive Having illness or infection Using meds such as steroids Being injured or having surgery Emotional stress
86
Treatment for diabetes
Insulin therapy
87
What is Parkinson’s
Progressive neurological condition where your brain gets damage overtime ``` Symptoms- Tremors Postural instability Vision problems Rigidity Freezing Slow movement Stiff movement ``` Causes Not enough chemical dopamine(this is caused by a loss of nerve ending cells)->chemicals that inflict movement->causes symptoms
88
Caudi equina
Collection of nerves at the end of the spinal cord is called caudiequina Carnes nerves that control the bladder as nerves for the movement of legs Extreme pressure or swelling at the nerve endings of the spine
89
Types of encephalitis
Primary-occurs when a virus directly effects the brain, can be concentrated in one area or widespread Secondary-results from a faulty immune system reaction to an infection elsewhere in the body, instead of attacking only cells In the body causing infection the faulty immune system also attacks the healthy cells in the brain, normally occurs 2-3 weeks after initial infection Causes- Viruses Autoimmune and metabolic Risk factors Young and old People who have immune compromise ``` Signs and symptoms Headaches Aches and pains Feeling generally unwell Fever Altered mental state ```
90
Gastric erosion
Mucous membrane lining the stomach becomes inflamed
91
Stomach ulceration
Open sores that develop in the stomach lining Signs and symptoms Pain in center of stomach Indigestion Heartburn ``` Causes Layer protecting the stomach lining from acid breaks down Leads to a damaged stomach lining Infection Long term anti inflammatory drugs ``` Common in men over 60
92
Gastric-intestinal varices
Swollen burns found in the stomach and oesophagus->often occurs due to pressure on the liver->or abnormalities with portal veins
93
Haemotenits
“Vomiting blood” Coffee ground colour-due to bring partially digested In the stomach Upper GI tract->as blood is lost the total volume blood is decreased->cause construction in blood vessels->impaired blood flow to the vital organs Causes Swallowed blood Gastro-osephagous reflux disease
94
Motor neuroN disease
Affects the brain and spinal cord And causes weakness and gets worse overtime Progressive degeneration of the motor neuron ``` Symptoms Weakness Slurred speech Weak grip Muscle cramps Weight loss ``` Causes Mutation of DNA Virus Toxins and chemicals Motor neurons control skeletal movement, overtime leads to weakened muscles ALS effects upper and lower motor neurons
95
Renal failure
Pre-renal sudden drop in blood pressure(shock) Inter-renal-direct damage to kidneys due to inflammation Postrenal-sudden obstruction of urine flow ``` Signs and symptoms Acidosis Electrolyte imbalance Accumulation of urea No urine produced ``` ``` Diagnosis Urine test Blood test Kidney biopsy Imaging tests ``` Management Treating underlying cause Dialysis Correction of fluid
96
What is dementia
Loss of memory and other thinking abilities to interfere with daily life Types of dementia Vascular dementia-damage to the blood to the brain, problem solving and memory loss ``` Treatment Medications Counselling CBT Cognitive rehab Activities such as music art Lewy body dementia-abnormal clumps of protein, slow movements and tremors ``` Mixed dementia-people of 80 years show a mix of all dementia Frontotemporal-breakdown of nerve cells and their connections in the frontal lobes, behaviour change Alzheimer’s disease- plaques and tangles in the brain with lumps of proteins called amyloid, damage healthy sounds around them
97
What is a stroke
A stroke is where a part of your brain Dosent receive blood supply and gets cut off, urgent hospital attention is needed Causes A stroke can happen due to either a blood clot in the brain or a bleed on the brain, a blocked artery(ischemic stroke) leaking or bursting of a blood vessel(haemorrhagic stroke) Treatments Medicines To treat blood clots Brain surgery

Applied pathophysiology (8 decks)

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