Note 3

Question 1

Explanation of COSMOS

Answer 1

with reference to reason (logos)
not spirits, gods, goddesses.

Question 2

TELEOLOGY

Answer 2

Explains phenomena with reference to aim, purpose and ends

Question 3

Having an idea of COSMOS (order of the the universe) assumes LOGOS (rationality, predictability,
order in nature)

Answer 3

which can be explained by deductive reasoning

Question 4

COSMOS was believed to consist of two parts

Answer 4

Heavens and the Sublunar Sphere

Question 5

Celestial Bodies (Moon, Sun, Stars, Planets

Answer 5

were considered to be perfect and non-perishable

Question 6

Sublunar Sphere (our world

Answer 6

was the place for being ([coming into] existence), becoming
(changing), perishment (eventual annihilation) Explaining change and plurality was the big question

Question 7

Is there anything that (lasts) does not CHANGE/perish? If not how do we consider things
still the same, How do we name or differentiate it from what it is not?

Answer 7

Problem of
identity, the ship of Theseus case

Question 8

Does change (motion in a sense) has an aim?

Answer 8

TELOS, LOGOS

Question 9

If the fundamental building blocks of reality i.e. SUBSTANCE is NOT of one kind (i.e.
substance pluralism) how do these interact?

Answer 9

-

Question 10

Is there a BASIC PRINCIPLE behind existence which makes up particulars?

Answer 10

ARCHE, FORM – IDE

Question 11

Was matter created or existed from the beginning?

Answer 11

MATERIALISM

Question 12

Are things bearer (carrier) of its qualities? Are any of them accidental or essential?

Answer 12

-

Question 13

Is there an ESSENCE to existence?

Answer 13

-

Question 14

Answers related to ARCHE

Answer 14

Water (Thales) Air (Anaximenes- condensates-dilutes) Apeiron (Anaksimandros-Undefinite) Fire
(Heraclitus, change is constant, river allegory, fire is a «spiritual power» which is in constant flux

Question 15

TELOS

Answer 15

The inherent purpose of each thing, the ultimate reason for each thing being the way it is,
whether created that way by human beings or nature

Question 16

LOGOS

Answer 16

The constant in an ever-changing World

Although the world never stops changing, the measure with which it does so can be understood. So,
Heraclitus claimed, our ever-changing reality has a form that remains the same, which he called the
Logos. The Logos is the deeper “nature” behind natural, changing things, but you cannot see it, or
hear it, or touch it. But it can be grasped by human reason. “Nature loves to hide” it beneath the
constant flux of the ordinary world we perceive.

Numbers
Four Elements

Question 17

REALISM

Answer 17

There is reality independent of human mind. Material reality can be grasped through senses.

Question 18

IDEALISM

Answer 18

Real being is beyond mere perception so it needs sophisticated rational capacity (reason) to
grasp it.

Question 19

PLATO’S CAVE ALLEGORY

Answer 19

Our world is like a set of shadows of mere imitations of true existence. Originals are up above the cave
which can be seen by the ones who dare to go out. This courage to dare to go out stands for using
reason instead of not questioning.

Question 20

ARISTOTLE

Answer 20

Aristotle rejected the two-worlds theory. He said he does not get the “partaking from the Forms”
explanation. Though Aristotle was a rationalist he had respect for ordinary opinion (common sense)

1 material what is made of
2 formal how is it arranged
3 efficient what or who made it
4 final what is its purpose telos

Question 21

DESCARTES

Answer 21

Foundationalism: In order to reach indubitable truth, he uses methodological DOUBT (Emptying the
basket first in order to get rid of the rotten apples)

his work is regarded as the beginning of modern thought since the ontic and
the epistemic value of human intellectual capacity was recognized for the first time. (Take into
account the power church had (inquisition etc) and taking “thinking” as foundation to one’s
philosophy. Not just as a tool for inquiry but base for other inferences.) Being the active subject,
(ÖZNE) changed everything.

Question 22

Cartesian Dualism:

Answer 22

The fact that he doubts is the indubitable fact. This thinking (doubting) self has
the essential property of “thinking” (the mind) and other things’ essential property is extension
(occupying a place) (the body)

Question 23

EPISTEMOLOGY

Answer 23

It is the philosophical study of knowledge
Episteme is knowledge whereas doxa is belief, opinion

Correspondance theory of truth is checking if the proposition studied is really the way it
declares.

Justification is the answer to the question; ON WHAT GROUNS DO YOU HOLD YOUR BELIEF?

Justified True Belief is KNOWLEDGE (Episteme)

Question 24

The question “How is it possible to know?” has two main answers:

Answer 24

Rationalism (Akılcılık) vs
Empiricism (Deneycilik)

Question 25

Platon: Real episteme can be derived from

Answer 25

the World of ideas (forms) by rational human capacity. (Reason)

Question 26

Aristotle on the other hand believed that knowledge should be derived from real world. He differentiates between the POTENTIAL and the ACTUAL

Answer 26

An acorn is potentially an oak tree. An actualized acorn is a particular tree. He rejected the concept of idea (or form) and partaking from these forms. He further explained his theory with the four causes theory. (material, formal, efficient, final) Wood is Table’s material cause; its shape is the formal cause. The carpenter or the principles of carpentry is its efficient cause. And its final cause is its purpose; remember his teleological views.

Question 27

A typical rationalist is

Answer 27

Descartes remember that cartesian doubt was methodological

Question 28

a typical empiricist is

Answer 28

John Locke who trusted the 5 senses and experience for acquiring knowledge Mind was like a blank page (tabula rasa) for him. Empiricists, prioritize experiences forseeking evidence about the nature of reality. This is how scientific knowledge accumulates

Question 29

Another empiricist was

Answer 29

David Hume according to whom our rational capacity is fallible even cause and effect relation is not a real but just “a habit of the mind”. Things just coexist (the fire and the boiling water) causality is a preconception (önyargı) not certain.

Question 30

KANT

Answer 30

Inspired by Hume’s ideas (Kant said that Hume awakened him from his dogmatic slumber – Beni dogmatik uykumdan uyandırdı) Kant merged the rationalist view with empiricist view. He categorized knowledge as a priori (i.e. knowable without experience (mathematical knowledge is that kind)) and a posteriori (if it requires verification with empirical data)

Question 31

All dealt with the answers to the most important problems of human existence: the nature of God and proper religion, the place of human in the universe, and the role and foundations of science

Answer 31

Determinism: The doctrine that all events, including human action, are ultimately determined by causes regarded as external to the will. Every action, or cause, produces a reaction, or effect, and every reaction, in turn, becomes the cause ofsubsequent reactions, like dominoes

Question 32

Popper/ Falsification / WHAT COUNTS AS JUSTIFICATION in SCIENCE?

Answer 32

He focused on vagueness, since some theories were too speculative so they were not falsifiable. He claimed that those were pseudo-science. “What will happen that can falsify this theory in the future?” We have to be able to give an answer to this question.

Question 33

Kuhn / Is science construction?

Answer 33

(His answer was, yes) Paradigm helps us to make sense of the world and it is a social construction