Obedience- Social 1 Flashcards
(137 cards)
1
Q
Describe the social psychology approach (4)
A
- Social psychology is the study of how people’s behavior can be influenced by other people, groups and society.
- This means that it tend to discount the importance of individual differences.
- For example, it looks at how the social situation we are in affects our behaviour. We may behave differently with our friends than with our parents.
- It also looks at how the groups we belong to may affect our behaviour. These include nationality and religion.
2
Q
What are social roles?
A
Roles are the expectations, responsibilities, and behaviours we adopt in certain situations.
3
Q
Define social influence
A
when an individual’s behaviour, attitudes or emotions are affected by someone
4
Q
Define obedience
A
Obedience is a form of social influence. It means obeying direct orders from someone in authority.
5
Q
Define compliance
A
Compliance is part of obedience: it means going along with what someone says, while not necessarily agreeing with it.
6
Q
Define dissenting
A
Dissenting is where the orders are rejected: the person does not do what they are told to do.
7
Q
Define internalising
A
Internalising means you obey with agreement
8
Q
Define conformity
A
Conformity means that you adopt the behaviours & attitudes to those around you
9
Q
Explain the background into Milgram’s research into obedience
A
After the WW2, people
assumed that there were basic character flaws in the German soldiers that made them more likely to be obedient to orders.
It was argued that there was something about the personality of the soldiers which lead them to follow orders to exterminate millions of Jews.
Milgram’s research challenged this view and demonstrated how situational circumstances can influence a person’s levels of obedience.
10
Q
Define autonomy
A
Acting on one’s own free will
11
Q
Define agency
A
When we be acts as an agent for others
12
Q
Define moral strain
A
Moral strain: experiencing anxiety, usually because you are asked to do something that goes against your moral judgement.
13
Q
Define socialisation
A
the process of learning the norms of society through socialising agents e.g. teachers and parents.
14
Q
Milgram carried out a pilot study where the participants predicted that most Americans would stop before 150V and that no more than 4% would continue to 450V.
Why do you think a pilot study is important?
A
the pilot study gave us a baseline prediction of what people think showing that most people hardly believed anyone would follow orders that might kill someone but the actual experiment revealed otherwise.
15
Q
What was the aim of Milgram’s original study?
A
To investigate what level of obedience would be shown by volunteer participants when they were told by a authority figure to administer electric shocks to another person if even if it meant harming them.
16
Q
What are the 4 key assumptions of the social approach
A
- The approach assumes that other people can affect our behaviour, thought processes, and emotions.
- It also suggests that the social situation can affect our behaviour, thought processes and emotions.
- Being in groups in society also affects our behaviour. We respond differently to people depending on the group that they are in, and we tend to favour people who are members
of groups to which we belong.
4.The roles that we play in society can also affect our behaviour.
17
Q
Describe the key issue of social control on research in obedience?
A
Psychological knowledge could be used as an agent of SOCIAL CONTROL For example it could be used to increase obedience. This can have both positive & negative consequences
18
Q
Name the sampling technique which Milgram used
A
Volunteer sampling
19
Q
Describe the sample of Milgram’s original study
A
40 men all from the same area in Northern America. Ages ranging 20-50. Mix of occupations and educational levels. (Paid $4.50 for participation)
20
Q
Describe the procedure or Milgram’s original study
A
- Particpant came to the lab along with a fellow participant (who was really a confederate)
- They drew lots to be “Teacher” or “Learner” but was always rigged so the “Teacher” - always the Participant “Learner” - always the Confederate
- Two rooms used within Yale University
- In one room was a chair where the learner was to revive electric shocks.
- In the other room was an electric shock generator with switches from 15V - 450V.
- The teacher was given a sample shock of 45V to convince them the shocks were real
- Learner had to learn word pairs which he deliberately got wrong
- The teacher was told to increase the shocks by 15V for every wrong answer but really the learner did not receive any shocks.
- Standardised verbal prods we’re also given to encourage the teacher.
21
Q
Describe the 4 prods the teacher was given in Milgram’s original study
A
Prod 1: “Please continue”
Prod 2: “The experiment requires that you continue”
Prod 3: “It is absolutely essential that you continue”
Prod 4: “You have no other choice, you must go on.”
22
Q
What where the results of Milgram’s Pilot study?
A
People predicted that most American’s would stop before 150 volts.
No more than 4% would continue to 450 volts
23
Q
What where the quantitive data results of Milgram’s original study?
A
- All 40 (100%) participants gave shocks up to 300 volts
- 26 (65%) participants gave the maximum voltage shocks
- Only 14 participants stopped before 450 volts
24
Q
What where the qualitative data results of Milgram’s original study?
A
- Showed visible signs of distress
- Sweating, trembling, nervous laughter,protesting
- However, some remained calm throughout
25
What conclusions did Milgram reach in his original study?
* The level of obedience was totally unexpected. 65% of participants went to the max voltage but the pilot study predicted only 4% of Americans would.
* Social influence is strong.
* People will obey orders even when it causes them personal distress.
26
Give three social factors that Milgram asserted would influence the participants into being obedient in his original study.
•Yale University is a prestigious institution and therefore people believe that it is unlikely to
allow anything unethical to occur.
•The participant was paid and so felt an obligation.
•This was a new situation for the participant, who had no idea of what was suitable behaviour.
•It was thought that the shocks were painful, but not dangerous.
27
Outline the procedure of Milgram's original study of obedience, from the point where lots were drawn to decide who would be the teacher and who would be the learner.
• The learner was attached to an electric shock generator in a different room from the teacher
• The teacher was given a 45 volt shock to convince the teacher that the shocks were real.
The teacher asked a series of words pairs which the learner deliberately got wrong.
• Every time the learner got the answer wrong, the teacher was requited to shock the learner, increasing the shock by 15 volts each time.
• The learner didn't actually receive any shocks.
•If the teacher refused to administer the shock, the Experimenter issued a number of set prods, e.g.
'you must go on'
28
Outline one methodological weakness of Milgram’s original study of obedience
* P: One weakness of the methodology used by Milgram was that the experiment lacked mundane realism. This means that the task the participants were asked to do wasn't something that they would normally be required to do in everyday life.
* E: People are not usually asked to electrocute a stranger because they can't remember a word pair. Therefore the study lacks ecological validity.
29
What does Milgram’s original study tell us about behaviour?
(Point): In certain circumstances people can obey authority figures to an unexpected extent.
(Elaborate); A pilot study was carried out, where people estimated that most Americans wouldn't go over 150 volts. The results of the actual study were unexpected.
• (Example/ evidence: this can be seen when 65% of the participants in
Milgram's study obeyed the "experimenter" and administered the "learner" the maximum voltage of 450 volts (although no real shocks given).
(Comment): However, this study was done in a prestigious University, in an artificial situation so the experiment lacks ecological validity. It cannot be certain that these results can be applied to everyday life.
• C: However, the participants thought that it was real as they showed a lot of stress during the experiment
30
Give one strength of volunteer sampling in Milgram’s original study
Allows access to a wide range of people
| • Milgram's study had a sample of 40 men of a variety of ages, occupations, and educational levels.
31
Explain one weakness of the sample in Milgram’s original study
One weakness of this sample is that It lacks generalisability. This means we cannot generalise the findings beyond the participants that were used. For example Migram used an all male
sample from Connecticut which means we cannot assume females or people from other areas will give the same results found in this experiment.
32
What were the participants told about the aim of Milgram’s research?
They were told the research was investigating the effects of punishment on memory.
33
Describe the debriefing processes the participants received in Milgram’s original study
The participants were interviewed after the procedure using open questions and attitude scales.
They were then debriefed.
A friendly reconciliation with the learner was arranged, and the participants were reassured that the learner had not received any electric shocks.
34
Explain the strength of gathering both quantitative and qualitative data in Milgram’s original study
Quantitative data is measurable; allows us compare the obedience of participants (eg 65% of people went up to the maximum voltage)
Qualitative data allows us to understand their experiences (sweating, trembling etc) indicate that the participants were feeling stressed
by their obedience.
35
Evaluate generalisability of Milgram’s original study
• Not representative of people in general because:
-All participants were from one area of America (Ethnocentric)
-All participants were male (Androcentric)
•The sampling technique was self-selected so the participants may be
different to other people - eg more likely to think that scientific research is very important/ more biddable
•Therefore can probably only generalise to male Americans.
36
Evaluate generalisability of Milgram’s original study in PEEC format
• P: A weakness of Milgram's study is that it lacks generalisability, as his sample was both androcentric and ethnocentric
• E: Milgram used 40 male participants from Connecticut in the US
E: This means that the results from the study cannot necessarily be generalised to women or people
from other areas or cultures.
C: However, Milgram wanted to look at obedience levels of Americans, so in that sense it can be generalised in part to the target population.
37
Evaluate reliability of Milgram’s original study in PEEC format
• P: A strength of Milgram's study is that it is considered reliable and so it can be replicated to produce consistent results.
• E: Milgram used standardised procedures, ensuring that participants experience of the experiment were as near identical as possible to each other.
E: For example, the experimenter issued the same 4 prods to the participants, like: "it is essential that you continue with the experiment."
• C: This means that the study can be repeated almost identically, but allows for the changing of certain variables to see if that variable has an effect on obedience. This can be seen in his
variation studies.
38
Describe Application of Milgram’s original study to the real world
•Shows us the potential influence the social situation can have on obedience
•Understand previous events eg behaviour of Nazi guards in WW 2
concentration camps
•Be aware of people's tendency to obey authority figures
•Society needs to ensure that there is a system so that people in authority can't abuse their power
•Teach people to challenge inappropriate authority
•Use obedience - good for certain areas in society e.g. army/police
Society needs some form of social control
39
Evaluate Validity in Milgram’s original study
• Artificial setting. The laboratory setting where the shocks were given was not like the Ppts normal environment.
• Artificial task. People are not normally asked to give electric shocks to others! So, low in mundane realism.
Both these factors decrease ecological validity.
• BUT Milgram argued that the laboratory is similar to any social
situation where there is an authority figure, such as a doctor's surgery or a police interview room.
•The good controls and standardisation also increase the validity of the research as it makes it more accurate.
40
Evaluate ecological validity of Milgram’s original study in PEEC format
• P: A weakness of this study is that it lacks ecological validity
•E: This means that the findings do not necessarily apply to everyday life.
• E: The experimental setting was artificial environment, where the participants were asked to
electrocute strangers if they got a wrong answer to memory questions. This is not something
that people would normally be asked to do. This means the study lacked mundane realism.
• C: However, Milgram argues a lab is similar to any social situation where there is an authority figure.
41
Evaluate the ethics of Milgram’s original study
* Consent - agreed to take part in an experiment. But did not know how stressful it would be
* Withdrawal - option was NOT given
* Deception - told that it was learning and memory, told they must continue with experiment, given impression that learner was in immense pain
* Protection - Affected subjects mentally - showed signs of extreme nervous tension
* Debriefing - Full debriefing given and also given psychometric tests and follow up counselling
42
Evaluate Milgram’s original study using SOC
The standardised procedure and the collection of quantitative, measurable data mean that this
study can be considered to be fairly objective. This provides support for the idea that psychology can be studied in a scientific Way.
43
What was the aim for Milgram’s Variation 7 study?
To see if manipulating the variable of proximity of the experimenter affects obedience levels where participants are asked to administer an electric shock to a fellow participant
44
What was the aim for Milgram’s Variation 10 study?
To see if manipulating the variable of
setting of the research affects obedience levels where participants are asked to administer an electric shock to a fellow participant
45
What was the aim for Milgram’s Variation 13 study?
To see if manipulating the variable status of the experimenter affects
obedience levels where participants are asked to administer an electric shock to a fellow participant.
46
Describe the procedure of Milgram’s Variation 7
Same as original except: After initially giving face-to-face instructions, the experimenter left the room and gave further instructions to the P over the telephone
47
Describe the procedure of Milgram’s Variation 10
Same as original except: Study took place in rundown office building; Ps were told that it was conducted by Bridgeport Associates, instead of by Yale.
48
Describe the procedure of Milgram’s Variation 13
Same as original except: Drew lots with two other participants . As usual, a rigged draw meant that the participant was chosen to be the teacher. 1st confederate: learner; 2nd confederate given the role of recording times from the experimenter's desk.
Experimenter leaves; 2nd confederate (ordinary man) suggests increasing shock level for every wrong answer.
49
What were the results of Milgram’s Variation 7?
9 out of 40 participants (22.5 %) gave the maximum voltage level (compared to 65% in the original study).
50
What were the results of Milgram’s Variation 10?
19 out of 40 participants (47.5%) gave the maximum voltage (compared to 65% in the original study).
51
What were the results of Milgram’s Variation 13?
4 out of 20 participants (20%) gave the maximum voltage (compared to 65% in the original study)
52
What conclusions can we draw from Milgram’s Variation 7 study?
The level of obedience dropped from the original experiment; this suggests that the proximity of the experimenter is important in creating obedience.
53
What conclusions can we draw from Milgram’s Variation 10 study?
The level of obedience dropped slightly
from the original experiment; this
suggests that while the setting has some effect on obedience, the main factor seems to be the orders of the
experimenter.
54
What conclusions can we draw from Milgram’s Variation 13 study?
The level of obedience dropped
significantly from the original study, suggesting that the authority of the experimenter is an important factor in creating obedience.
55
Evaluate Milgram’s Variation 7 study giving one strength and one weakness
✅Only one variation in procedure for each study all other variables remain the same- which makes it possible to compare the effects of manipulating the IV so we can show cause and effect between obedience and proximity of authority figure.
❌Participants may not have believed that the shocks were real, as they would expect scientists from a reputable university to protect participants. This means that the validity of the research may be low.
56
Evaluate Milgram’s Variation 10 study giving one strength and one weakness
✅Only one variation in procedure for each study all other variables remain the same which makes it possible
to compare the effects of manipulating the IV so we can show cause and effect between the setting and level of obedience.
✅Use of an office block instead of a university may have increased the mundane realism of the study so the study may be increased in ecological validity.
❌The set-up is still scientific rather than everyday we don't know if people will be similary obedient in a non-scientific situation.
57
Evaluate Milgram’s Variation 13 study giving one strength and one weakness
✅Only one variation in procedure for each study
- all other variables remain the same which makes it possible to compare the effects of manipulating the IV so we can show cause and effect between the status and authority of the experimenter and level of obedience.
❌Participants may not have believed that the shocks were real, as they would expect scientists from a reputable university to protect
participants. This means that the validity of the research may be low.
58
List 2 things that are different from Milgram’s original study and Experiment 7
```
In Milgram’s Original study:
•The experimenter was
physically present
• Experimenter gave instructions
to participant face to face
Where as in Experiment 7:
• Experimenter started in room
with participant & then left
• Prods were given over
telephone
```
59
List 3 things that are different from Milgram’s original study and Experiment 10
In Milgram’s Original Study
• Carried out in a well-equipped Psych lab in Yale
• Participants believed it
was carried out by professors
• Yale set in an affluent & prestigious part of town.
Where as Experiment 10
•The experiments were conducted in a three-room office suite in a rundown commercial building which was sparsely furnished.
• Participants were told that the research was being undertaken by a private company (Research Associates of Bridgeport).
• The experiment was relocated from
Yale University to a small commercial office in Bridgeport
60
List 2 things that are different from Milgram’s original study and Experiment 13
In Milgram’s original study
• There was only one confederate, who posed as a learner
• The experimenter in the lab coat gave instructions to the teacher to administer the shock
Where as Experiment 13
• There were 2 confederates, one
posing as a learner the other as a
fellow teacher
• The confederate teacher dressed as an ordinary man gave instructions to
shock the learner
61
Milgram used very standard procedures allowing to replicate his original study in variations.
Why is this a strength and how does it help support his conclusions from his original study?
* The good controls and standardised procedure in the first experiment made it possible to investigate the effect of specific variables in the variation studies.
* The variation studies support Milgram's original conclusions. This gives his original studies credibility.
62
Describe the procedure of the Run down Office Block (Experiment 10) variation study (3)
1. Experiment 10 was carried out in a run down office building in a industrial part of town called Bridgeport
2. Three rooms were used and the room used as a lab was very sparsely furnished
3. Milgram dissociated the study from Yale University and told participants that the study was being conducted by a private company called Research Associates of Bridgeport
63
Evaluate one of Milgram's variation studies [8]
✅P: One of the strengths of Milgram's variation study number 7 was that he used exactly the same standardised procedures as the original study when testing obedience to authority, except for one variable, which allows cause and effect conclusions to be drawn.
• E: By manipulating the variable of whether the experiment was close (in the room) or out of the room delivering instructions to the participant by telephone, Milgram was able to determine the effect the proximity of the experimenter had on obedience levels.
• E: Milgram found that the number of participants giving the maximum voltage of 450 volts dropped from 65% in the original experiment to 22.5% when the instructions were delivered by telephone as opposed to being in the same room.
•C: Therefore, by keeping the procedures standardised, Milgram was able to make direct comparisons to the original study and infer cause and effect, which increases the scientific credibility of the study.
• C: However, it could still be argued that mundane realism was still low, as in the original experiment, because giving someone electric shocks is not a task that people are normally expected to do in everyday life.
❌• P: A limitation of the variation number 7 is that it still has ethical implications for the participants.
• E: The participants in Expt. 7 were still required to administer (or so they believed) electric shocks to strangers.
• E: As in the original study, the participants were required to increase the electric shocks by 15 volts every time the "learner" got the answer incorrect.
• C: The participants still showed signs of agitation, distress and moral strain in the is experiment. Therefore it could be argued that Milgram failed to protect the participants.
•C: However Milgram justified his experiments by stating the anxiety induced was not deliberate or anticipated. Describing this anxiety as “momentary excitement” which in his view his not the same as harm.
ADD CONCLUSION!!!!
64
What is agency theory?
Milgram’s Agency Theory suggests humans have two mental states:
•Autonomous
•Agentic
65
Describe what is meant by “autonomous state"
In the autonomous state the person believes that they have power. They freely choose their own behaviour, and take control for their own actions. They will be guided by their own moral code.
66
Describe what is meant by "agentic state"
The person allows someone else to direct their behaviour, instead of choosing it themselves.
They do not feel responsible for their own behaviour as they are acting as an agent for someone else.
This may lead them to act against their own moral code.
67
How does Milgram explain the existence of the agentic state?
Milgram suggests that it is a product of 1)Evolution: it developed because following orders rather than acting independently would increase the
chances of survival in a threatening situation.
He also suggests it can be learned through 2) Socialisation:
•Learned in childhood from parents and schools
• Reinforced in adulthood by the legal system
68
Describe what is meant by moral strain
People experience moral strain when they feel that their obedient behaviour is wrong, and goes against their values.
69
Give sources of moral strain for the participants in Milgram's study.
* Participants heard the cries of the victim
* Participants may have feared retaliation from the victim
* Participants had to go against their moral values
* There was a conflict between the needs of the victim and the needs of the authority figure
* The participants would not want to harm someone as this would go against their own view of themselves.
70
Describe two ways in which the participants in Milgram's study could reduce their moral strain.
•1. Displace their responsibility onto an
authority figure
•2. Dissent: choose not to obey
71
Describe the aspects of Milgram's study that SUPPORT agency theory.
* Milgram's study supports the concept of moral strain: Ps showed evidence of distress when they were given an order to harm an innocent person.
* Provides evidence for the concept of displacement of responsibility because in the debriefing some Ps reported that their behaviour was the responsibility of the experimenter, and that they had not wanted to shock the learner.
72
Explain why it can be said that agency theory lacks evidence.
* Agency is an internal mental process, and therefore can't be directly observed
* Milgram's theory about the evolutionary development of agency theory also can't be directly tested
73
Describe an aspect of obedience which agency theory cannot explain.
•Does not explain individual differences: why some people
obey and others do not.
• Does not explain motivational issues behind obedience.
74
What are the ethical
| implications of agency theory on society?
It may remove personal responsibility from those who commit follow immoral orders, thus offering excuses to people who follow authority even when they know it is morally wrong to do so.
75
Give an example of research that suggests agency theory can be applied cross-culturally
For example Meeus and Raajmaker found that Dutch participants would harass a job applicant because they were told to do so as part of a research study. So it is generalisable cross-culturally.
76
Daisy has just started a job at a new office and is in a very junior position. Her office manager has asked her to make tea and coffee for the other team members every tea break. When the office manager is there, Daisy complies with this request. However, when the office manager was away one day, Daisy was very reluctant to make to refreshments, as she thinks it is unfair.
• Using Agency theory, explain Daisy's behaviour
* Daisy is being obedient to authority when the office manager is there, because they have legitimate status & authority.
* The agency theory would argue that Daisy had been socialised from a young age to obey authority figures. Milgram argues that this is an evolutionary mechanism to maintain social order, which is important for our survival to comply with groups and obey authority.
* When the office manager is present, Daisy is acting in an agentic state, as described by the agency theory. This means that she is not acting of her own free will & is allowing someone else to direct her behaviour and therefore complies with making the tea & coffee, even if she doesn't really want to.
* When the office manager was away, Daisy didn't make the refreshments because according to agency theory, she was acting in an autonomous state & was freely choosing her own behaviour.
77
What is Social Impact Theory?
The presence of others causes changes in a person.
These changes can be BEHAVIOURAL COGNITIVE, and/or EMOTIONAL.
The person being impacted is referred to as the TARGET.
The person doing the influencing is referred to as the SOURCE.
78
Define target in relation to social impact theory
The person being impacted/ influenced on
79
Define source in relation to social impact theory
The person doing the influencing
80
What three factors influence the likelihood that a person will respond to social influence
* strength of the source - determined by status, authority or age.
* immediacy of the source - the distance (in space and time) between the source and the target.
* Number: how many sources and targets there are in the group.
81
What is meant by "multiplication of impact”?
Strength, immediacy and number can have a multiplicative effect on social impact, making social impact become stronger.
82
What is meant by "division of impact”?
Certain factors reduce the impact of social influence.
For example, an authority figure has diminished ability to
influence someone if they have an ally, or a group of allies.
83
Briefly describe the AMEA used for evaluating agency theory
```
• A: Social Impact Theory
• M: Mainly lab & some field
experiments
• E: (E.g. Hofling et al. 1966)
•A: Show's how peoples
obedience levels can be socially
influenced. (E.g. how people
function in the army).
```
84
What is the mathematical model for social impact theory?
```
¡= f(SIN)
i: magnitude of impact
f: function
S: Strength of the sources
I: Immediacy of the sources
N: Number of sources.
```
85
Evaluate the applications of social impact theory
✅Use of mathematical formula: theory is USEFUL because can predict how people will behave under certain conditions.
✅Theory is RELIABLE if the same measurements are put into the formula, the same prediction will emerge.
❌The theory is limited in the type of social situation it is able to explain. It cannot predict what might happen when two equal groups impact on one another.
86
Evaluate the methodology for social impact theory
✅Both lab and field experiments were used to develop Social Impact Theory, e.g. Milgram’s variation studies and Latane (bystander behaviour) this increases scientific credibility
❌Analyzing peoples obedience behaviour using a mathematical formula could be considered reductionist
87
Evaluate the evidence available for social impact theory
✅Milgram's variation number 7 shows that proximity is an important factor in obedience which also supports the Social Impact Theory
✅Sedikides & Jackson (1990) found that people tended to obey a uniformed zoo keeper when he told them to not lean on railings compared to a casually dressed zookeeper. This experiment was carried out in a birdhouse in the zoo.
❌Doesn't explain WHY people are influenced by others
❌Ignores individual differences: why are some people more or less affected by social impact than others?
88
Identify 2 DIFFERENCES between Milgram's agency theory and Latane's Social Impact Theory
* Agency theory emphasises the role of evolution and socialisation as a process to ensure obedience whereas Social Impact Theory focusses exclusively on the interaction of social forces as situational determinants of obedience.
* Agency Theory is less reliable as it does not predict exactly how people will behave in any given situation where as Social Impact Theory is reliable as if the same measurements are put into the formula the same predictions will emerge.
89
Identify SIMILARITIES between Milgram's agency theory and Latane's Social Impact theory
•Agency Theory is supported by other research - eg Hofling found that nurses would follow doctor's orders within a hospital when asked to give a patient
twice the daily dose of a drug. This is similar to Social Impact Theory which is also supported by other research: studies Sedikides & Jackson (1990) showed that people were more likely to obey a source with high authority.
•Agency theory doesn't explain WHY people obey authority
figures - just explains that they are likely to do so. This so similar to Social Impact Theory which also doesn't explain WHY people are influenced by
others, just under what conditions they are more likely to be influenced.
90
What three aspects of personality may be a source of individual difference in obedience?
* Locus of control
* Authoritarianism
* Empathy
91
Describe what is mean by locus of control
The extent to which a person feels that they can control their
behaviour.
People with an external locus of control believe that
their behaviour is largely beyond their control, whereas people
with an internal locus of control tend to believe that they are
responsible for their own actions.
92
Explain why people with an external locus of control might be more inclined to be obedient.
They might be more likely to believe that the person giving the
orders controls their behaviour, rather than believing that they
themselves control their behaviour.
93
State what is meant by an authoritarian personality
A personality which is submissive to authority, but harsh to those seen as subordinate to themselves.
94
Outline one piece of evidence that suggests that people with authoritarian personalities may be more likely to be obedient
Milgram and Elms (1966) found that obedient people scored
higher on the F-Scale (a test of authoritarianism) than defiant
people did.
95
State what is meant by empathy
The ability to understand how other people are thinking and
| feeling.
96
Identify the effect that Burger (2009) found that high levels of empathy had on obedience.
People with high levels of empathy were more likely to protest against giving electric shocks - but their obedience levels remained the same as those with lower levels of empathy.
97
Explain why developmental psychology would suggest that women are more likely to be obedient
Women are likely to have been socialised to be quiet and
| compliant.
98
Describe one piece of evidence that suggests that women are similar to men in obedience levels
Milgram conducted a variation of his experiment with 40 female
teachers. He found that they were virtually identical to the male
participants in the original experiment, with an obedience rate of 65%, and 27.5% breaking off at the 300 volt level. (Although
their level of reported anxiety was much higher than for males).
99
Describe what is meant by the nature/nurture
| debate.
The debate over the extent to which behaviour is due to
inherited genetic factors (nature) or whether behaviour is
caused by our interactions with the environment and the
experiences which we have over the course of our lives.
(nurture).
100
Justify the idea
that obedience is
influenced by
NURTURE
```
Agency theory suggests
that obedience is learned
through childhood
socialisation by parents
and schools
```
101
Milgram controlled situational variables in his 1963 original study of obedience.
Explain why this is a strength of Milgram's original study of obedience. [2 marks]
Controlling situational variables means that the research can be replicated (1).
For example Milgram controlled the room where the research took place This is a strength because it means that the research is reliable, allowing us to compare the findings from the different participants (1).
102
What research supports the theory of locus of control
In Milgram's research many of
those who obeyed said that they obeyed because the experimenter had the final responsibility, rather than believing that they themselves were responsible for their own actions. However, research in this area is mixed, with only tentative evidence.
103
What is the questionnaire used to measure authoritarianism
F-scale
104
Identify 4 situational variables which Milgram
| found to affect obedience
* Momentum of compliance
* Proximity
* Status of the authority figure
* Personal responsibility
105
Describe the situational variable- momentum of compliance
The experiment starts off by making small and trivial requests:
These do not cause the participant any anxiety. However, these initial requests commit the participant to the experiment, so that they feel duty-bound to continue. Similarly, the
voltage on the shock machine increases gradually (15v increments).
106
Describe the situational variable- proximity
Proximity the closer the authority figure, the higher the level of obedience. For example in variation 7 when the experimenter left the room and gave telephonic instructions rather than face to face obedience levels dropped to 22.5%
107
Describe the situational variable- Status of the authority figure
Obedience was strongest when the authority figure was seen
as legitimate. Evidence for this comes from the increased obedience when experiments were conducted at the prestigious Yale University, and decreased obedience when the
experiment was conducted in a rundown industrial building, or when instructions were given
by an ordinary man not a high-status researcher.
108
Describe the situational variable- Personal responsibility
Obedience was strongest when the participants felt that someone
else (the experimenter) was responsible for harming the learner. In a variation where
participants had to sign a contract that stated that they were taking part of their own free
will, and that Yale University was not responsible for any legal consequences, obedience fell
to 40%.
109
What were Blass (2012) findings when he compared studies in the US and elsewhere in a review article?
Found an average percentage of
obedience in the US of 60.94%, and 65.94% elsewhere. Blass concludes that this similarity across cultures suggests that people tend to obey authority, and says that this may be "one of the universals of social behaviour"
110
Slater (2006) used virtual reality to replicate Milgram’s research giving shocks to a computer generated avatar.
What was the obedience rate?
73.9% (similar to Milgram’s)
111
What was the aim of Burger’s Contemporary Study?
To partially replicate Milaram's study. •To find comparisons with the original study (to find out whether current levels of obedience were different to levels of obedience from Milgram's studies 45 years earlier).
•Burger predicted that obedience rates would be similar.
•To protect participants
112
Give two justifications Burger used for stopping the study at 150V
1) Stopping at 150V means the study becomes ETHICAL. As it does not cause the distress that going up to 450V caused.
2) Stopping at 150V will not affect findings as in Milgram’s original study only 7 people who went beyond 150V stopped before 450V.
So the study will be a fair replication of Milgram’s original research.
113
What were the similarities in the sampling technique between Burger and Milgram?
* Both used Volunteer sampling
* Ad in paper
* Flyers in local establishments
* Participants we’re paid
114
What were the differences in the sample and sampling technique between Burger and Milgram?
* Milgram: no screening of participants
* Burger: Complicated 2 step screening process
* Burger’s sample consisted of both male & female of a wide age range and ethnicity
115
Describe Burger’s final sample
* 29 males
* 41 females
* Age range 20-81
* Range of occupations and ethnicities
116
What type of participants were immediately excluded from Burger’s study?
Participants who'd taken more than
| two Psychology courses at university
117
Why were psychology students excluded from Burger’s study?
If participants were familiar with the original study, then the VALIDITY of Burger's results would be affected.
118
What was the first screening process of Burger’s study?
A questionnaire about participants physical & mental health and childhood trauma.
30% of participants were excluded on this basis.
119
What was the second screening process of Burger’s study?
Participants completed a number of questionnaires:
• Demographic: age, occupation, education, ethnicity
• Empathy (the Interpersonal Reactivity Scale)
Locus of Control
• Anxiety (the Beck Anxiety Inventory)
• Control (the Desirability of Control Scale)
• Depression (the Beck Depression Scale)
Participants were then interviewed using a STRUCTURED INTERVIEW.
120
Give 4 safeguards Burger used to improve Milgram’s ethics
1. Two step screening process to increase protection of participants by excluding vulnerable people
2. Told twice in writing that they could withdraw at any stage and still keep their money
3. Monitored by the experimenter (a clinical psychologist) who was instructed to end the study immediately if he saw any signs of excessive stress.
4. Procedures approved by the Santa Clara University Review Board.
121
Explain the procedure of Burger’s BASELINE CONDITION
* Participants arrived at the lab and drew lots that were rigged same as Milgram’s study.
* The teacher was given a shock to convince them the shocks were real: 15V- Burger 45V- Milgram
* Teacher asked the Learner word pairs which the learner deliberately got wrong (same as Milgram)
* The Experimenter gave same prods as in Milgram’s study.
* The learner said they had a heart condition.
122
Explain the procedure of Burger’s MODAL REFUSAL
* Same procedure as Milgram’s and Burger’s baseline study except TWO confederates used.
* Teacher 1- confederate
* Teacher 2- real participant
* Learner- confederate
* Confederate teacher takes lead- delivers shocks
* Refuses at 90V
* Teacher 2 asked to continue
123
What were the Results of Burger’s Baseline condition?
Stopped at 150V or earlier= 30%
| Prepared to continue= 70%
124
What were the results of Burgers modal refusal condition?
Stopped at 150V or earlier= 36.7%
| Prepared to continue= 63.3%
125
What were Burger’s conclusions from his experiments? (Not including individual differences)
• THAT MILGRAM'S RESULTS STILL STAND HALF A CENTURY LATER- time and changes in society’s culture did not have an effect on obedience levels.
THE MODEL REFUSAL RESULTS WERE SIMILAR TO BASE CONDITION
• This goes against Social Impact Theory ( which suggests impact of authority figure would be lessened if teacher had an ally)
126
What were burger’s results for gender?
There was no statistical difference in obedience according to gender
Point at which males and females needed the first prod was also
similar.
127
What were burger’s results for empathy?
•Higher empathy meant more likely to express reluctance to continue
BUT: this did not increase disobedience!
• No correlation between empathy scores and obedience
128
What were burger’s results for locus of control?
Hypothesis: high internal control should DECREASE obedience
Correlation between high desire for control (ie high internal locus of control) and decreased
obedience shown only in base condition but NOT in the model refusal condition.
Presence of dissenting model reduced this effect - perhaps because it triggered a me-vs-
him situation between the participant and the confederate teacher which triggered Ps wish to take control.
129
What are the comments on generalisability when evaluating Burger’s study?
✅ Burger’s sample of 70 people is larger than Milgram’s sample of 40.
✅It covers a wider age range (Milgram recruited 20-50 year olds, Burger 20-81 year olds) and 2/3 of Burger’s sample were women, whereas Milgram’s were all male.
❌ Burger also excluded a lot of people from his final sample; for example people with emotional issues or some education in Psychology. This may have affected the results and Milgram used a wider range of types of people.
130
Evaluate the reliability of Burger’s study (PEECC)
* P. Milgram's procedure very reliable because it can be replicated
* E. Milgram introduced standardised procedures in his experiments.
* E. For example. He ensured that the instructions were exactly the same.
* C. Burger followed Milgram's script wherever possible and also ensured that standardised procedures were followed (e.g. like the confederate was the same person every time)
* C. Burger also filmed the experiment which meant that inter-rater reliability was added as other researchers could view participants behaviour and judge obedience for themselves. This helps to avoid subjectivity.
131
Evaluate the ethics of Burger’s study
P. The study was approved by the Santa Clara University Ethics Panel.
E. This panel had the power to shut down the study if it looked liked anyone was being harmed.
E. This would ensure that the ethical issue of protection of participants would be followed. In addition, the experimenter was a trained clinical
psychologist who was trained to spot signs of stress in participants. In addition to this, the participants did not go past 150 volts.
C. This meant that the participants in Burgers study did not suffer the distress that they did in Milgram's.
C. This also ensured that obedience could be tested in an ethical way in modern times.
C. However, Burger did still break some ethical issues like deception, as the
participants still didn't give informed consent.
132
What are the applications of Burger’s study?
* Provides us with insight into modern-day levels of obedience
* Showed that it's possible to conduct research in an ethical way without sacrificing scientific integrity
* It also shows us how obedience to authority works - this can be used in settings like schools, workplaces & prisons
* Authority figures should wear symbols of authority (like the a wearing uniforms)
133
Evaluate the validity of Burger’s study
× Low ecological validity: the research took place in an artificial setting (a laboratory)
× Low ecological validity: artificial task (giving a learner electric shocks)
✅High ecological validity: the situation (obeying an authority figure) was the same as
any other daily situation (eg choosing whether to obey a policeman, teacher, doctor...)
✅High experimental realism: the participants believed that the situation was real and therefore acted as they ordinarily would
✅Psychology students were screened out so we can be fairly sure no one knew about the study and therefore did not change their behaviour- increase validity
134
Describe two features of the procedure of Burger's 2009
| study which are the same as Milgram's 1963 research.
* Both explained the study in the same way "to investigate the effect of punishment on learning"
* Burger used the same 4 verbal prods that were used in Milgram’s research.
135
Give two differences in the procedure of Burger's 2009 study and Milgram's 1963 study
* In Burger's study the participant was given a sample shock of 15V, in Milgram's it was 45V.
* Screening process in Burger's study was thorough, in Milgram's there was no screening process.
136
Compare Burger's 2009 study with Milgram's 1963 study (6)
One similarity between Burger's 2009 study and Milgram's 1963 study is that they are both low in ecological validity.
This is shown in Milgram's study where the research took place in an artificial environment (a laboratory) and involved an unusual task (giving electric shocks to a fellow participant).
Similarly, in Burger's study the same task was used. However for both studies the task had high experimental realism as participants believed that
the learning task and the electric shocks were real. They therefore behaved realistically.
One difference between Burger's study and Milgram's study is that Milgram's study caused the participants more stress.
This is because in Milgram's study, participants were required to be obedient up to 450 volts.
On the other hand, in Burger's study, the study was stopped at 150 volts.
Therefore Burger's study was more ethical than Milgram's, as the participants were better protected.
137
Explain the ways in which Burger (2009) has modelled his study on
Milgram's (1963) study [6 marks].
P: Burger replicated two of Milgram's obedience variations the baseline condition and the model refusal condition.
E: Burger carried out Milgram's study in a very similar way, as he used a volunteer sample technique to recruit his participants.
E: For example, he advertised for participants in the same way as Milgram, using flyers, adverts in the newspapers as well as online, which ensured that a variety of participants in
terms of age, occupations and educational backgrounds could be considered for the study.
P: Burger also replicated the way the participant and the confederate learner were allocated their roles, by rigging the drawing of lots.
E: This ensured that the true participant was unaware of the true nature of the study and believed that they had equal chance of being cast into either role, which increases
experimental realism.
E: As with Milgram's study, this helped decrease extraneous variables and increase the validity of the study, to ensure that they were measuring what they intended to measure obedience.
