Peach Pack 2

Question 1

What’s are questionnaires?

Answer 1

Questionnaires are a self report data collection method consisting of a series of carefully structured questions given to participants in a standardised manner.

Question 2

When are questionnaires used?

Answer 2

Questionnaires are used as both an overall research method (where psychologists ask a research question) and a data collection method in experiments.

Question 3

What are researcher effects/ researcher bias?

Answer 3

Refers to the idea that the researcher can affect the data that is collected. If the researchers know the full aims of the study and an expected outcome, they may struggle to remain objective.

When they administer and analyse the data from the questionnaire they may influence the results (intentionally or unintentionally) to reflect their expectations.

Question 4

What are the principles of questionnaire design that ensure data is valid and objective?

Answer 4

•Fit for Purpose; Questionnaires should be to the point and ask as few questions as possible to ensure that respondents do not lose patience. And make sure that the questions they choose stick to the original aims of their
research.

• Filler Questions: Having said this, it may be helpful to include some irrelevant questions to hide or distract from the main purpose of the questionnaire. This will help to reduce demand characteristics but does raise ethical issues.
• Sequence of Questions: It is better to begin the questionnaire with easy questions saving the more sensitive questions until towards the end.
• Standardised procedures, where all participants are given exactly the same questions administered in exactly the same way, is important to ensure reliability.
• Pilot studies: A practice run where the questions are tested on a small group of people. This allows the researcher to refine the questions and avoid any leading or confusing questions

•Ethical Issues: Deception may be necessary to control demand characteristics but an ethical questionnaire should really only ask about
the researcher needs to know.
Questions may be related to personal and sensitive issues which may make respondents feel uncomfortable (psychological harm)
Such sensitive issues should be handled with care. Confidentiality and privacy
must be respected.

Question 5

How can we write appropriate questions for a questionnaire?

Answer 5

• Questions should be clear and concise so that respondents know what is being asked.
• Avoid double barrelled questions (two negatives)
•Avoid Bias: Questions should be objective and value free.
•They should not imply that a particular answer is more desirable (leading questions).
They should not be worded in such a way that
Statements or questions should be phrased and set out in
such a way that respondents do not begin to answer in a
certain pattern e.g. If for the first few questions a
particular kind of respondent was likely to agree there may
be a tendency to agree with statements all the way through
the questionnaire. This is tendency to stick to an answer throughout the questionnaire is known as response bias.

Question 6

Why is the order of the questions important? (link to respond bias)

Answer 6

The order of the questions is important so that the respondents do not begin to answer in a certain pattern. This can cause respondents to stick to an answer thought out the questionnaire causing respond bias.

e.g. If for the first few questions a particular kind of respondent was likely to agree there may be a tendency to agree with statements all the way through the questionnaire.
This is tendency to stick to an answer throughout the questionnaire is known as response bias.

Question 7

What are leading questions?

Answer 7

Questions were the correct answers prompted or encouraged by the way it is worded.

Question 8

What are socially desirable answers?

Answer 8

When the respondents will give an answer that reflects what they think they ought to say to present themselves in a positive light

Question 9

What are open questions?

Answer 9

Open questions allow respondents express themselves freely in their own words and without constraints. The data gathered is qualitative.

Question 10

What are closed questions?

Answer 10

Close questions give participants a set range of answers to choose from. There is no possibility of extending the answer. The data gained is quantitive.

Question 11

What is a likert scale?

Answer 11

These involve the respondent being given a series of statements about topic. For each item the respondent must select from a fixed set of choices.

Question 12

Explain the difference between an open ended and a fixed response question

Answer 12

•Open ended: participants can answer in their own words
where as
•Closed: participants must choose from a set range of answers.

Question 13

Briefly explain why a standardised procedure is important when collecting data in a questionnaire

Answer 13

Standardised procedures use the same questions for all participants improving reliability so that the survey can be repeated in a consistent way.

Question 14

Why are socially desirable answers a problem in self-repot methods of research?

Answer 14

Socially desirable answers are a problem because it means that the data will lack validity because participants haven’t answered accurately.

Question 15

What are the advantages of open questions?

Answer 15

• Allows us to access thoughts and feelings
• Can find out WHY people behave in certain ways
• May be high in validity because it allows for COMPLEX QUALITATIVE data that is rich and detailed

Question 16

What are the disadvantages of open questions?

Answer 16

•Difficult to analyse data and identify trends in qualitative data

Question 17

What are the advantages of closed questions?

Answer 17

• Produces quantitative data that is easy to analyse
• Tend to be high in reliability because they have standardised questions that can be replicated
• Quantitative data means it’s more objective

Question 18

What are the disadvantages of closed questions?

Answer 18

• Quantitative data can oversimplify complex behaviour.
• Validity reduced if participants answers don’t fall into one of the given categories.
• Cannot find out why participants answer in a certain way.

Question 19

Explain one ethical issue raised by questionnaires.

Answer 19

The use of filler questions to control demand characteristics is a form of deception.

Question 20

Give 4 strengths of a questionnaire:

Answer 20

➢High reliability due to use of standardised procedures.

➢Standardised procedures control extraneous variables.

➢Because researcher does not need to be present when questionnaire is completed, social desirability effects are reduced, which increases validity.

➢Allows data to be collected from a large sample of participants quickly and cheaply.

Question 21

Give 4 limitations of questionnaires

Answer 21

➢Use of closed questions can limit validity.

➢Demand characteristics if participants know the aim of the questionnaire can limit validity.

➢Participants may misunderstand questions which reduce validity.

➢If questionnaires are administered differently then reliablity is reduced.

Question 22

State one factor that increases reliability and one factor that decreases reliability of questionnaires:

Answer 22

The use of standardised procedures make questionnaires easy to replicate therefore increasing reliability.
However not all researchers may follow set procedures eg. The questions are the same but how respondents receive them are different therefore decreasing reliability.

Question 23

State one factor that increases validity and one factor that decreases validity of questionnaires:

Answer 23

The use of open questions and face validity can increase the validity.
However demand characteristics can lead to participants giving socially desirable answers reducing validity.

Question 24

Name the three types of interviews

Answer 24

• Structured
• Unstructured
• Semi-Structured

Question 25

What are structured interviews?

Answer 25

Structured interviews have predetermined questions given in a set order. Typically they are standardised so all participants are asked the same questions in the same way. Tends to produce more quantitative data.

Question 26

What are unstructured interviews?

Answer 26

Unstructured interviews involve questions that are not in a set format. Researchers may have a set topic area for discussion but the exact phrasing of the questions is left to the interviewer. In addition, the interviewer may generate questions as a result of the answers they have been given. Tends to produce more qualitative data.

Question 27

What are semi-structured interviews?

Answer 27

Semi structured interviews tend to have set questions but will allow the interviewer more chance to explore the answers further. Produces both qualitative and quantitative data.

Question 28

What makes good interview practice?

Answer 28

* Establish rapport * Start with less sensitive questions * Avoid jargon and leading questions * Make sure the participants understand the questions * Sensitively deal with information to protect the participants * Ensure confidentiality is maintained

Question 29

What is establishing rapport?

Answer 29

Establishing rapport: The interviewer should try to build a sympathetic and friendly relationship with the interviewee. The interviewee should find the interviewer trustworthy, feeling comfortable answering the questions. Hopefully the responses given will be more open and honest and therefore have higher validity.

Question 30

What is Thematic Analysis?

Answer 30

identifying and assessing patterns in qualitative data allowing conclusions to be drawn.

Question 31

Explain phase 1 of thematic analysis

Answer 31

1. Familiarisation with the data. | The researcher must become very familiar with the data - reading and re-reading it noting their initial observations

Question 32

Explain phase 2 (Coding) of thematic analysis

Answer 32

2. Coding Involves the identification and grouping together into categories the main ideas appeared to be emoji on the data that are relevant to the research question.

Question 33

Explain phase 3 (Searching for themes) of thematic analysis

Answer 33

A theme is a coherent and meaningful pattern in the data relevant to the research question. The researcher organises all the coded data so that each code is linked to a relevant theme.

Question 34

Explain phase 4 (Reviewing themes) of thematic analysis

Answer 34

4. Reviewing themes Involves checking that themes accurately reflect both the coded extracts and the full data set. The researcher should begin to define the nature of each individual theme.

Question 35

Explain phase 5 of thematic analysis

Answer 35

5.Defining and naming themes Requires the research to conduct and write a detailed analysis of each theme and constructing a concise and informative name for each theme

Question 36

Explain phase 6 (Writing- up) of thematic analysis

Answer 36

6. Writing-up Writing the report involves weaving together the main themes found in the data and data extract to tell the reader coherent and persuasive story about the data and contextualising it in relation to the research question.

Question 37

What are the strengths of thematic analysis?

Answer 37

* Reduces large amounts of complex qualitative data into a more manageable summary allowing conclusions to be drawn. Validity remains high as the data remains qualitative. * The process of identifying codes and actively looking for themes means that the researcher on must derive themes from the data rather than impose their own preconceived themes onto the data.

Question 38

What are the weaknesses of thematic analysis?

Answer 38

• Themes can come from the research rather than the data. This is a form of research effect and can seriously undermined the validity of any conclusion reached. • reliability is also undermined as different researchers may look at the same set of data and identify different themes. •Is a time consuming and highly skilled task.

Question 39

What is the experimental method?

Answer 39

Experiment methods are mainly concerned with the overall type of experiment i.e. whether it is a lab or a field

Question 40

What is the aim of an experiment?

Answer 40

The aim of an experiment is to try to identify cause-and-effect links between an IV and DV.

Question 41

What are the three main characteristics of an experiment?

Answer 41

* Researchers manipulate or alter the IV * They measure whether there is an effect on the DV. * Control as many extraneous variables as possible so they do not have a confounding effect on the DV.

Question 42

What is extraneous variable?

Answer 42

Variables in an experiment that might have an affect on the DV other than the IV

Question 43

What are cofounding variables?

Answer 43

Variables that have had an effect on the DV other than the IV.

Question 44

What are situational variables?

Answer 44

Variables in the research situation itself that affect participant performance

Question 45

What are participant variables?

Answer 45

Variables that come from the participant themselves which can have an effect on their performance.

Question 46

What is the difference between an experiment in psychology and an experiment in another since.

Answer 46

In psychology an experiment is a social situation and so the interaction between the experimenter and participants influence the results by producing extraneous and all cofounding variables.

Question 47

What is the Hawthorne effect?

Answer 47

If a person knows that they are being studied they will change their behaviour.

Question 48

Define experimenter effects

Answer 48

If the experimenter knows the aims of the study and an expected outcome they may struggle to remain objective and influence the results (intentionally or unintentionally) to reflect their expectations.

Question 49

Define demand characteristics

Answer 49

All the cues that participants may receive that indicate the purpose of the research

Question 50

Name two variables that pose a threat to validity in experiments

Answer 50

* Experimenter effects | * Demand characteristics

Question 51

What are ethical issues in an experiment?

Answer 51

Experimenters must make sure that they do not abuse their power. The experimenter must therefore ensure participants are aware of the right to withdraw and are treated as individuals rather than objects for research for research.

Question 52

State three methods in experiments for controlling extraneous variables

Answer 52

* The single blind * The double blind * Standardised procedures

Question 53

What is a double blind?

Answer 53

When neither the participant nor experimenter knows the aims of the study.

Question 54

What does double blind control?

Answer 54

Demand characteristics and experimenter effects

Question 55

What is a single blind?

Answer 55

When participants don’t know the aim of the experiment so they don’t change their behaviour.

Question 56

What does a single blind control?

Answer 56

Demand characteristics

Question 57

What do standardised procedures help control?

Answer 57

Experimenter effects

Question 58

What are the ethical constraints in trying to control extraneous variables?

Answer 58

Psychologist have a duty to protect the rights and welfare of their participants and deception should be kept to a minimum. (Issue for single and double blind)

Question 59

Is reliability in experiments high and why?

Answer 59

Reliability can be high in experiments as the use of standardised procedures makes it easier to replicate such research.

Question 60

The experiment is a social situation interaction between subjects and the research and may influence the results gained. True or false?

Answer 60

True

Question 61

A note of the head or tone of voice could create demand characteristics. True or false?

Answer 61

True

Question 62

Participants may react to experimental procedure setting and person coming out the researcher in many different ways. True or false?

Answer 62

True

Question 63

What are the two main types of experiments?

Answer 63

* Lab | * Field

Question 64

Define what is meant by a lab experiment

Answer 64

Experiments conducted in a controlled setting that allows the researcher to deliberately manipulate the IV and control any extraneous variables.

Question 65

Define what is meant by a field experiment

Answer 65

Experiments where the IV is manipulated but in the natural environment. Extraneous variables are controlled where possible.

Question 66

What are the advantages of a lab experiment?

Answer 66

* Cause and effect links between the IV and DV can be very clearly established. * The setting allows precise measurement of variables. * There is excellent control over extraneous variables. * Control of variables makes replication easier leading to higher reliability.

Question 67

What are the disadvantages of lab experiments?

Answer 67

* The artificial setting may affect behaviour and make it difficult to generalise to real life. * Results are more likely to be biased by demand characteristics and experimenter bias. * May raise ethical problems.

Question 68

What are the advantages of field experiments?

Answer 68

* higher ecological validity so its results can be more easily generalised to real life situations. * Participants may not know they’re being studied so there is a reduction in bias from demand characteristics.

Question 69

What are the disadvantages to of field experiments?

Answer 69

* lack of control over extraneous variables results in more risk of cofounding results. * more difficult to replicate exactly. * can be more difficult to establish very clear cause-and-effect links as there is less control over extraneous variables. * may raise ethical problems.

Question 70

What is the experimental condition?

Answer 70

The experimental condition is a condition where the participants experience the main condition of the IV.

Question 71

What is the control condition?

Answer 71

The control condition in experiment is the condition that gives the research a baseline for comparison so that any effects on the DV of experimental condition of the IV can be clearly seen.

Question 72

What are the three types of experimental design?

Answer 72

* Independent groups * Repeated measures * Matched Pairs

Question 73

Define independent groups

Answer 73

Independent groups involves using different participants in each condition of the experiment.

Question 74

What are repeated measures?

Answer 74

Repeated measures involves using the same participants in each condition of the experiment.

Question 75

What are matched pairs?

Answer 75

matched pairs design involves using different participants in each condition but making sure they are the same on certain important variables that affect the performance on the experimental tasks.

Question 76

What are the advantages of independent groups?

Answer 76

•Order effects does not cause problems since the participant only does one condition. • demand characteristics are less of a problem as the participant only does one condition so has fewer cues and is less likely to guess the aim of the study. • The same test can be used in both conditions

Question 77

What are the disadvantages of independent groups?

Answer 77

* Participant variables may affect the results. | * more participants are required because you are only using each person once.

Question 78

What are the advantages of repeated measures?

Answer 78

* Participant variables are kept constant between conditions. * fewer participants are required because each is used more than once.

Question 79

What are the disadvantages of repeated measures?

Answer 79

* Demand characteristics may be more obvious as each participant does both conditions of the experiment they may be exposed to more cues and so more able to guess the aim of the study and thus their behaviour may change. * order effects may confound results when one condition is done after another.

Question 80

What are the advantages of matched pairs?

Answer 80

* Participant variables are controlled because there are similar people in each condition. * Order effects are not present since each participant takes part in only one condition * Demand characteristics are controlled as each participant takes part in only one condition * The same test can be used in both conditions

Question 81

What are the disadvantages of matched pairs?

Answer 81

* matching participants is very difficult. * The process of matching may be biased by experimenter effects * more participants are required

Question 82

In independent groups how can we control the extraneous variable: participant variables

Answer 82

Participant variables can be controlled by random allocation of participants to groups.

Question 83

In repeated measures how can we control the extraneous variable: demand characteristics

Answer 83

Demand characteristics can be controlled by using double blind so participants don’t know the aim of the study and neither do the experimenters so they can’t give away any clues.

Question 84

In repeated measures how can we control the extraneous variable: order effects

Answer 84

Order effects are controlled by: counterbalancing – half the participants perform condition A then condition B. The other half of the participants do B then A. Time-lapse – leaving time between the two conditions can also be used.

Question 85

In matched pair how can we control experimenter effects?

Answer 85

Control by using standardised tests that are objectives to match participants on the relevant variables

Question 86

Which experimental design has the most difficulty with participant variables?

Answer 86

Independent groups

Question 87

Explain what the term order effects refers to

Answer 87

The order in which participants complete the experiment may affect their performance e.g. practice or tiredness

Question 88

Which experimental design suffers from order affects?

Answer 88

Repeated measures

Question 89

Which experimental design might use twins?

Answer 89

Matched pairs

Question 90

Name the experimental designs that eliminate order affects

Answer 90

* Independent groups | * matched pairs

Question 91

Explain randomisation

Answer 91

Randomly allocated participants in a way that so all participants have equal chance of being selected.

Question 92

Give the strengths of case studies

Answer 92

1. Case studies are useful in that they allow us to investigate people with a unique characteristic or experience. 2. Researchers will use a variety of different methods to gather information and then triangulate the data to draw conclusions. This allows us to check the validity of the research. 3. Often, the evidence gathered will be qualitative, allowing an in-depth analysis of the group being studied (Quantitative data can be collated too)

Question 93

What are the limitations of case studies?

Answer 93

1. The researcher may spend a great deal of time interviewing and building up a relationship, with the participant, which may lead to the researcher interpreting data in a subjective manner this reduces the validity of the findings as they will reflect more what the researcher was hoping/expecting to see rather than what was actually there. 2. Validity is also reduced if the participant is being asked to remember information from the past, which they may not recall correctly. 3. Many studies are unique and it is often doubtful whether the results gained can be generalised beyond the one particular participant that was studied. 4. Case studies are usually difficult to replicate and so their reliability tends to be low. 5. Case studies cannot be used to establish cause-and-effect links between variables because of the lack of control over variables that have influenced the behaviour being studied. 6. ethical issues are raised. They often involve delving into the personal lives of the people being studied, invasion of privacy can be a issue.