Pink Pack 1 Flashcards
(156 cards)
1
Q
What is the aim of biological psychology?
A
Biological psychology aims to explain behaviour by looking at the physical causes - it seeks to use
biology as a means of understanding human behaviour.
2
Q
What are the 6 Key Assumptions of Biological Psychology?
A
- All behaviour is determined by biological factors.
- The central nervous system is a major influence on behaviour.
- Behavioural & psychological development is assumed to be based on changes in the brain and general biology.
- The process of evolution can explain the existence of much human behaviour. Behaviour has evolved so that behaviour that help us to survive are more likely to be passed on to future generations.
- Genes influence behaviour.
- There is behavioural continuity between species so it makes sense to study animals and make generalisations to humans.
3
Q
Explain why it is difficult to directly link the structures and functioning of the brain to specific behaviours
A
Ethical constraints: limit research as we cannot manipulate the IV of a person’s biology otherwise we would be breaking the ethical rules.
Practical difficulties: what we can directly observe of the brain is limited by technology
4
Q
Give one strength and one weakness of correlational studies:
A
✅Can be the starting point for stimulating further research.
❌Does not allow for cause and effect to be established.
5
Q
Give two strengths of case studies:
A
✅Allows researchers to collect rich and detailed data on unique individuals and groups.
✅Often triggers further research and they can sometimes be used to challenge established theories.
6
Q
Give two weaknesses of case studies:
A
❌Interpreting data in a subjective manner reduces the validity of the findings as they reflect what the researcher was hoping/expecting to see.
❌Doubtful whether the results gained can be generalised beyond the one participant that was studied.
7
Q
Give a brief outline of the method in fMRI scans
A
Detects the changes in blood oxygen
levels in specific areas of the brain (via radio signals) to determine neural
activity.
8
Q
Give a brief outline of the method in CAT scans
A
Scans the brain using X-rays on a rotating system to produce a 3D structural image of the brain.
9
Q
Give a brief outline of the method in PET scans
A
Uses a radioactive tracer which binds to glucose and can be detected using a scanner that detects radioactive emission to determine neural activity.
10
Q
What are 2 advantages of fMRI scans?
A
•Non-invasive so therefore more ethical •Provides exact locations of increased neural activity during tasks.
11
Q
What are 2 disadvantages of fMRI scans?
A
•Unable to detect activity of
individual neurones.
•Participants need to remain
extremely still during the scan.
12
Q
What are 2 advantages of CAT scans?
A
•Not as harmful as PET scans
•Provides detailed structural
images of the brain
13
Q
What are 2 disadvantages of CAT scans?
A
•Participants are exposed to radiation (although only a small amount) •Not as sensitive compared to fMRI.
14
Q
What are 2 advantages of PET scans?
A
•shown to be a reliable technique for detecting blood flow and oxygen use in the brain. •Usually painless except the initial injection
15
Q
Give two disadvantages of PET scans
A
•Interpretations of the images
could be biased.
•Participants are exposed to
radiation
16
Q
What is the timeline of ways of studying the brain?
A
- Post Mortem (long time ago)
- PET scans (1950s)
- CAT scans (1960s)
- fMRI scans (1990s)
17
Q
Define what is meant by the Central Nervous System
A
The CNS is made up of all the neurones brain and nerves in the spinal cord. It is a central processor of information and control centre for human behaviour
18
Q
Define the Peripheral Nervous System
A
a web of nerves carrying information to and from the CNS to the rest of the body.
19
Q
Describe the role of CNS in human behaviour
A
The CNS is the central processor for information and control centre for
information we receive and responses that we make in our environment. (human behaviour)
20
Q
Name the 4 lobes of the brain
A
- Frontal lobe
- Temporal lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Occipital lobe
21
Q
Outline the major functions of the frontal lobe
A
Having to do with problem solving, decision making, planning and organisation.
22
Q
Outline the major functions of the parietal lobe
A
- integrate sensory information from various parts of the body
- contain the primary sensory cortex, which controls sensation (touch, hot or cold, pain)
- tell us which way is up
- help to keep us from bumping into things when we walk
23
Q
Outline the major functions of the occipital lobe
A
• receive and process visual
information
• helps in perceiving shapes and colors
24
Q
Outline the major functions of the temporal lobe
A
- recognizing and processing sound
- understanding and producing speech
- various aspects of memory
25
Where is the prefrontal cortex found in the brain?
The prefrontal cortex is part of the frontal lobe and sits right behind the forehead.
26
Describe the role of the prefrontal cortex in human behaviour
* inhibiting inappropriate responses
* decision making
* motivational behaviour
27
What case study looks into a railway worker who suffered accidental damage to his pre-frontal lobe?
Phineas Gage
28
What did the case study of Phineas Gage suggest?
That the pre-frontal cortex is involved in the moderation of our aggressive behaviour.
29
What is meant by the term contra-lateral control?
Refers to the right hemisphere of the brain being responsible for the left hand side of the body’s movement and the left hemisphere being responsible for the right hand side of the body’s movement.
30
Describe the role of the corpus callosum
To ensure the two hemispheres left and right are able to communicate with each other.
31
What is the corpus callosum?
A massive bundle of neurones joining the two left and right hemispheres of the brain.
32
What are the Ventricles?
The ventricles are a linked system of cavities (spaces) filled with cerebrospinal fluid.
33
Describe the function of the Ventricles
The ventricles produces cerebrospinal fluid which bathes and cushions the brain.
It also ensures the chemical stability of the brain and the provision or nutrients.
34
What is the limbic system?
The Limbic system is a complex system of structures and nerve networks deep inside the brain.
It has been linked to instinct and mood.
35
Describe two reasons for why the biological psychology approach can be considered to be reductionist.
Biological psychology is reductionist in that this overlooks social and environmental factors.
It also breaks human behaviour down into its component parts which may lead to oversimplification of the role of the brain in any human behaviour.
36
Name the structures of the limbic system
* Thalamus
* Hippocampus
* Amygdala
* Hippothalamus
37
Describe the function of the thalamus in the limbic system
Relays information from the five senses to relevant parts of the cortex.
The senses play an important role in emotions because we react to stimuli around us, including stimuli we perceive as threatening.
38
Describe the function of the amygdala in the limbic system
emotions such as anger and fear
are linked to this structure - for example, if our senses perceive a threat, this region is stimulated.
The fight/flight response is linked to this area.
39
Describe the function of the hippocampus in the limbic system
Plays a key role in memory formation e.g. converting STM into LTM. Therefore, this area could also be
linked to emotions- in evolutionary terms. it would make sense to remember things that frighten
us so they can be avoided in the future
40
Describe the function of the hippothalamus in the limbic system
This regulates bodily functions via stimulating the release of hormones.
This structure is also linked to the fight/flight response - this requires lots of energy so it involves the release of a hormone called adrenaline - it diverts oxygen to our muscles, speeds up our heart rate, and lowers our pain threshold. This will enable us to act aggressively in order to defend ourselves.
41
Where is the amygdala found in the brain?
In the limbic system
42
Define neuron
A neuron is a specialised cell within the nervous system
43
What is the function of a neuron?
the function of neurons is to communicate with 1000s of
| other cells at a time in huge networks (pathways).
44
How can the networks of the brain can be affected by the environment?
Networks adapt and we have new experiences. New networks can be formed when we learn something new.
45
What is the function of the axon as part of the neuron
An extension of the cell body that passes electrical impulses towards the axon terminals to allow it to communicate with other neurones.
46
What is the function of dendrites as part of the neuron?
Receive messages from other neurones in order to trigger an action potential within the cell.
47
What is the function of the cell body in a neuron?
The main part of the cell where the nucleus sits. Also contains mitochondria which provides energy.
48
What is the function of the nucleus in a neuron?
Stores the DNA for that particular neuron
49
What is the function of the axon hillock as part of the neuron?
Where the action potential is generated. Connects the cell body to the axon.
50
What is the function of the Myelin Sheath in the neuron?
Provides an insulating layer to the axon helping to speed up the rate of message transmission.
51
What is the function of Nodes of Ranvier in the neuron?
Gaps in between each myelin
sheath also speeding up the action
potential
52
What is the function of the Synapse in the neuron?
Small gap between the pre-synaptic neuron and post-synaptic nueron. Where neurotransmitters are released and communication takes place.
53
Give three elements of a synapse?
1) The pre-synaptic neuron where action potential starts
2) The post- synaptic neuron where the message travels to
3) The tiny space between the two (synaptic cleft/ gap)
54
What is released in the synaptic cleft?
Neurotransmitters
55
How can neurotransmitters link to reductionism?
communication between neurons means everything we think or do can be reduced down to a specific combination of neurotransmitters sent around our brain which can oversimplify complex human behaviour as other factors could influence behaviour not just our neurotransmitters.
56
Name 3 types of neurotransmitters
* Serotonin
* Dopamine
* Noradrenaline
57
What is the function of serotonin?
Serotonin is involved in feeling, pain, hunger and regulating body temperature.
58
What is the function of dopamine?
Dopamine has been related to emotions of pleasure, dependency and motivates us.
59
What is the function of noradrenaline?
Involved in fight / flight response
60
What are the advantages of using synaptic transmission as an explanation of how messages move around the brain?
Much of the research is PET scans which provide objective, reliable evidence of brain functioning increasing the scientific credibility of the research.
61
What are the disadvantages of using synaptic transmission as an explanation of how messages move around the brain?
•A disadvantage is that much evidence in this field has also come from studying animals.
But to generalise from rats and cat brains to human brains may
not be valid as there are differences in animal and human brains.
•In addition, individual differences are not always taken into account as it is
assumed everyone's brain uses synaptic transmission in the same way.
However, some people have different levels of certain neurotransmitters, so
although the processes may be the same, the messages are influenced.
62
Define the term recreational drugs
Used in the absence of medical grounds for personal enjoyment.
63
Define euphoria
An intense pleasurable feeling - often
| referred to as a high
64
Define withdrawal as experienced by drug users
Withdrawal occurs when a drug is no longer active in our nervous system.
This can result in unpleasant symptoms which can be dangerous.
65
Define dysphoria
An intense dissatisfaction, anxiety, discomfort, distress
66
Describe the role of neurons in
| human behaviour
* Neurons are the basis of all behaviour in that any time we think, feel or do something thousands of neurons are communicating with one another.
* New networks are formed when we learn something new.
67
Describe the process of synaptic transmission in the Central Nervous System
Step 1: An action potential moves down the pre-synaptic neuron and causes the vesicles with neurotransmitter to move close to the terminal membrane.
Step 2: The vesicles fuse with the membrane in a process called exocytosis. This causes the neurotransmitter to be released into the synaptic cleft.
Step 3: The neurotransmitters bind to protein receptors on the post-synaptic neuron. This could generate an action potential.
Step 4: Once the neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft, it is removed by 3 processes.
(1. Reuptake
2. Broken down/degraded by enzymes
3. Diffusion)
68
Describe one strength and one weakness of Synaptic Transmission as an explanation of how messages move around the brain
✅Synaptic Transmission uses PET scans which provide objective, reliable evidence of brain functioning increasing the scientific credibility of the research.
❌However, much evidence in this field has also come from studying animals. But to generalise from rats and cat brains to human brains may not be valid as there are differences in animal and human brains such as size, sensory and cognitive abilities.
69
How is the dopamine pathway activated?
Dopamine pathways are activated by natural rewarding behaviours such as having sex or eating food.
70
Behaviours such as sex or eating food stimulate normal levels of dopamine in certain areas of the brain.
What are these areas of the brain?
* nucleus accumbens and
* the ventral tegmental area in the limbic system. Messages are sent to the frontal cortex and we experience pleasurable feelings.
71
Why do reward systems exist?
These feelings are rewarding and make us more likely to repeat the behaviour. It is likely that reward systems in our brains exist because they have
an adaptive purpose - that is, they encourage behaviours that enable us to survive.
72
How do recreational drugs work by influencing the dopamine system?
Recreational drugs work by altering neurotransmission in the dopamine system.
They increase the levels of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens and the ventral teqmental area (VTA). These structures, in the limbic system, are considered to be part of the reward systems of the brain accounting for the euphoric feelings of abused drugs.
For example, both cocaine and heroin target the dopamine system.
73
Describe the effect of recreational drugs on the transmission process in the CNS
Recreational drugs act to intensity and prolong the activity in the reward system by ensuring that an increase in dopamine levels continually excites the post- synaptic neurons within the system so that they keep firing.
74
Which area of the brain does cocaine target?
Cocaine disrupts the normal functioning of the synapses in the
dopamine pathway in the brain
75
What does the user of cocaine
| experience and why?
the user experiences euphoria.
| Because The VTA activates the nucleus accumbens (an area associated with euphoric feelings)
76
Describe what effect cocaine has on the presynaptic neurons in the dopamine system
It blocks the transporter receptors on the presynaptic neurons
Therefore: the pre-synaptic neuron does not re-uptake dopamine
77
Describe what effect cocaine has
| on dopamine in the synaptic cleft
dopamine remains in the synaptic cleft for longer.
78
Describe what effect cocaine has on the post synaptic neurons
Cocaine prolongs and intensifies the stimulation of the post- synaptic neuron.
79
Evaluate the evidence on how drugs affect brain functioning and synaptic transmission. Give one strength and one weakness.
✅There is a great deal of well- controlled, scientific evidence, often using animals, to support conclusions reached on how drugs effect the brain.
Such research would not be possible on humans due to ethical constraints.
❌ Scanning techniques are not yet sophisticated enough to show everything that happens in the brain when drugs have been taken.
80
Describe the issue of Determinism when explaining drug addiction.
The biological explanation of drug addiction implies that drug addicts have no free will and that their addiction is caused by factors beyond their control.
This is because it sees addiction as being determined by the disruption of normal synaptic transmission.
81
Describe the issue of Reductionism when explaining drug addiction.
The biological explanation of drug addiction overlooks the importance of social; cognitive and situational factors in drug addiction
82
What are the links of recreation drugs and individual differences?
• Although drugs have a common Biological mechanism they have different effects on different people - suggesting that biological explanations of addiction may not be complete.
•This may be due to slight differences in brain chemistry between individuals or it could be due to differences in environment.
E.g. in situations where the user has never experienced drug taking, even their usual dose can lead to an overdose.
83
Describe the experience of heroin?
Heroin is used as a recreational drug for the euphoria it induces.
heroin bathes the brain it is then distributed by the bloodstream and changed into morphine. After the rush, the high lasts for four or five hours and is caused by the morphine diffusing from the bloodstream into the brain. It is described as a warm, drowsy, cosy state. Heroin is highly addictive.
84
What are the risks of taking heroin?
* Overdoses
* risk of death due to inhaling vomit
* injecting heroin can do damage to your veins and arteries
* sharing needles means danger of serious infections
* Addiction has a disastrous effect on family relationships and ability to hold down a job.
85
What is relapse in relation to drug abuse?
resuming the use of a drug after one or more periods of abstinence.
86
Describe tolerance to heroin?
Tolerance develops quickly, and increased doses are needed in order to achieve the same effects.
After a period of use, many addicts no longer experience the euphoria.
They use heroin only for relief of painful withdrawal symptoms.
87
What are drug associated cues?
the stimuli in the environment that are associated with taking drugs e.g. friends that have
previously taken drugs with the user, needles, drug dens etc.
88
What is drug seeking behaviour?
An absolute compulsion to search for and take a drug. This can occur even if the drug no longer produces strong euphoric feelings.
89
What is abstinence?
After initially taking a drug, abstinence is the Period of time when the user is not taking the drug and does not have the compulsion for drug seeking behaviour
90
Why did Van den Oever use a skinner style box?
Allows the researcher to control all extraneous variables such as social interaction and situational/ environmental factors.
91
What is the Aim for Van den Oever’s study?
To investigate changes in the function of synapses in the medial prefrontal cortex in rats upon re-exposure to heroin cues after long-term abstinence from self-administration.
92
Who were the subjects in the contemporary study for biological psychology?
Numerous Male Wistar rats
93
Describe the Stage 1: Self-administration of the Procedure of Van den Oever et al (2008)
The Experimental Group; One group of rats were trained to self-administer heroin. Every time they were presented with an audio visual cue. If they poked their nose into a hole in the box, then they would receive a dose of heroin.
The control group: a separare group of rats that were trained to self-administer a sucrose solution. This was to ensure that any neurobiological changes were due to heroin and not just any reward.
All the things that were later done to the experimental group were also done to the control.
94
In Van den Oever el al (2008) why was the control group taught to self-administer sucrose solution?
to ensure that any neurobiological changes were due to heroin and not just any reward.
95
Describe Stage 2: Abstinence & Extinction of the Procedure of Van den Oever et al (2008)
After becoming addicted to the heroin, the experimental group of rats were split in two:
•some rats were kept in a separate cage for 21 days, thus providing a
period of forced abstinence.
•Other rats were put in the same self-administration box for 21 days but did not receive the heroin when nose poking, which is referred to as extinction.
96
Describe Stage 3: Re-exposure to drug associated cues of the Procedure of Van den Oever et al (2008)
After the 21 days of abstinence or extinction, these two groups were
both split in two:
•Half of the abstinence rats and half of the extinction rats were re-exposed to the drug-associated cues for 60 minutes in the original self-administration boxes. They did not receive any heroin.
•The other half of the rats were placed in the self-administration boxes, but were not exposed-to drug-associated cues: They also did not receive heroin. This was a contral in order to confirm
that any synaptic changes were due to the drug-associated cues, the drug- seeking behaviour was recorded (e.g. how many times they nose-poked attempting to get the heroin) as a measure of relapse.
97
Describe Stage 4: Analysis of composition and function of synapses in the mPFC of the Procedure of Van den Oever et al (2008)
all rats (including the control group) were decapitated and the brains were frozen and later analysed using the mass spectrometry technique. This allowed detection of subtle changes in receptor proteins in the synapses of the medial prefrontal cortex.
98
The brains of the rats were frozen and then analysed in stage 4 using mass spectrometry.
What is mass spectrometry?
Mass Spectrometry: Analytical technique to identify the amount and types of chemicals present in a microscopic sample.
99
What was Result 1: behavioural evidence of relapse from Van den Oever’s study?
After a period of abstinence or extinction from heroin, rats that were exposed to the drug- associated cues demonstrated a significantly greater amount of drug-seeking behavior (nose-poking) compared to the rats that also self-administered heroin but were not exposed to drug associated cues.
100
What was Conclusion 1 from Van den Oever’s study?
After a period of abstinence exposure to drug associated cues can tigger relapse back into drugs seeking behaviour.
101
What implications can we draw from Conclusion 1 of Van den Oever’s study on heroin?
Implication: therefore recovering drug addicts need to be removed from/ avoid drug associates cues e.g. people and places
102
What was Result 2: composition of synapses in the mPFC from Van den Oever’s study?
After a period of abstinence/extinction from heroin, rats that were exposed to the drug- associated cues had a significantly lower than normal level of AMPA receptors in the medial
prefrontal cortex. Whereas, rats that were self-administering heroin but were not exposed to drug associated cues and rats that were trained to self-administer sucrose had normal levels.
103
How did researchers in Van den Oever find results for the composition of synapses radiation in the mPFC?
The researchers used mass spectrometry to study the brains of the rat. This allowed them to looked at a post synaptic receptor called the AMPA receptor in the medial prefrontal cortex which is a target for the neurotransmitter glutamate.
104
What were the levels of AMPA receptions in rats that self- administered heroin, had a period of
abstinence or extinction, and
were exposed to drug-
associated cues?
Below normal levels of AMPA receptors
105
What were the levels of AMPA receptors in Rats that self- administered heroin, had a period of abstinence or extinction, but were not exposed to drug-associated cues?
Normal levels of AMPA receptors
106
What were the levels of AMPA receptors in Rats that self- administered sucrose, had a period of abstinence or extinction, and were either exposed or not exposed to sucrose associated cues?
Normal levels of AMPA receptors.
| This suggests that the changes in the AMPA receptors are specific to the drug heroin.
107
What was Conclusion 2 from Van den Oever’s study?
Rats reexposed drug associated cues related to heroin after a period of absence/extension had a lower number of AMPA receptors on postsynaptic neurons in the mPFC. The molecular composition and function of the synapses had changed.
108
How do neurone lose receptors?
The brain has plasticity and can adapt to drug use in many ways. Neurons can reduce the amount of receptors by a process called endocytosis.
Endocytosis of receptors results in a reduced amount of activity for that neuron.
109
Describe the follow up procedure of Van den Oever’s study
The researchers used a new set of rats. The rats then went through a similar procedure as the initial
study. Except BOTH groups self-administered heroin and both were exposed to drug-associated
cues in the period of abstinence/extinction. However, one group was injected with a drug that prevented endocytosis in the mPFC.
110
What was Result 3 from Van den Oever’s study?
Rats that had NOT been injected with the drug to prevent endocytosis showed significantly greater amount of drug-seeking behaviour (relapse) compared to rats that were given a drug to prevent endocytosis in the mPFC.
111
What was Conclusion 3 from Van den Oever’s study drawn from Result 3?
This confirms a reduction in AMPA receptors in the prefrontal cortex as a result of being reexposed drug associated cues is causing relapse back into drugs seeking behaviour.
112
What caused the changes in the synapse of the rats?
the drug associated cues and the memory of the rewards related to the heroin causes the changes in the synapses.
113
What is endocytosis?
This is where the receptors are engulfed in a membrane and taken into the neuron.
114
Give a weakness of generalisability in Van den Oever el al’s study
P=One weakness is that the sample consisted of male Wistar rats which is not a representative sample of the target population which are human drug addicts.
E= This is a weakness as the rat brain is very different to the human brain so the results with regards to drug addiction in rats is less generalisable to drug addiction in humans.
E= For example, the medial prefrontal cortex in rats is much smaller compared to a human,
which could influence the way synapses change when re-exposed to the heroin associated cues.
C= However, the use of rats allows a great deal of control and it would be
unethical to do the same study on humans, so using rats is an appropriate sample for this type of experiment.
115
Give a strength of generalisability in Van den Oever el al’s study
```
P= One strength is that the crucial areas of the brain for drug addiction are similar in rats compared to humans.
E= This is a strength as the results from rat addiction studies can be more easily generalised to human addiction.
E= For example reward pathways between the midbrain and prefrontal cortex that exist in humans and rats are alike.
C= However, although the brain areas are similar to one another, there is a social element to human drug addiction that cannot be easily modelled (copied) in rat studies.
```
116
Evaluate Van den Oever et al’s study in relation to reliability
P= One strength is that the study used standardised procedures to ensure all the rats have a similar experience
E= This is a strength as standardised procedures increase the reliability of the study because it makes it more replicable.
E= For example all rats were trained with the same audio-visual cues, they all had the same amount of time in abstinence - 21 days; etc.
C=Therefore, this study is high in scientific credibility as high reliability is an important characteristic of science
117
Give a strength of validity in Van den Oever el al’s study
```
P= The study had a control group (the sucrose group)and many other controls for extraneous variables.
E= This is a strength because it increases the validity (accuracy) of the study as it clarifies the role of heroin and drug associated cues in the changes in the synapses of the medial prefrontal cortex.
E= For example the control group were trained to self-administer sucrose and on re-exposure to sucrose-associated cues did not produce any changes in the synapses of the medial prefrontal cortex, showing the heroin addiction is necessary for these changes.
C= Therefore, any further development of drug therapies for addiction can focus on the role of heroin in neurobiological changes in the brain.
```
118
Give a weakness of validity in Van den Oever el al’s study
P= The study is reductionist and this means that its validity is reduced.
E= This is because it is limited in its explanation of the causes of relapse into heroin seeking behaviour.
E= For example the study explained relapse by looking at changes in the synapses of the medial prefrontal
cortex, but it did not consider other factors involved in drug addiction in humans such as the social factors involved.
C= However, reductionism is a valuable characteristic in science and in this research it allows Van den Over et al to focus on the biological variable of greatest importance in heroin addiction.
C=Furthermore, this reductionism limits the potential usefulness of any drug developed as the study does not take into account all the variables that might cause relapse in a human.
119
Give a weakness of ethics in Van den Oever el al’s study
P= One weakness is that rats were harmed during this study.
E= This is a weakness as it damages the reputation of psychological research in society.
E= For example, Catheters were inserted into their blood stream, they were trained to become addicted to heroin and then killed in order to analyse the synapses in the medial prefrontal cortex.
C=However, the costs need to be weighed up against the potential benefits to humans and the development of a drug to help prevent heroin addicts from relapsing.
120
Evaluate the practical applications Van den Oever’s study had in the real world.
P= The study is useful as it has practical applications for preventing drug addicts from relapse.
E= This is a strength as heroin has a very high relapse rate, with relapse causing serious negative consequences to the individual and society. In particular, if drug addiction could be reduced then we would probably see a reduction in the crime associated with it.
E= For example, drug therapy for humans could be developed to block changes in the synapses of the
prefrontal cortex as a result of being exposed to drug-associated cues such as needles, and friends associated with taking heroin.
C= However, it is unclear whether the same mechanisms are involved in human heroin addiction compared to rat heroin addiction and so a drug to prevent relapse may not work as well for humans as it does for rats
121
Define the term hormone
chemical substances produced in a specialised gland and transported in blood to stimulate specific cells or organs into action.
122
Give the system of glands that produce hormones
The endocrine system
123
Give the name of the structure in the brain that is the 'command centre' for the endocrine system.
Hypothalamus
124
What is the role of the hypothalamus in hormones?
The hypothalamus has direct control of the pituitary gland which secretes many different hormones. The hypothalamus also ensures messages are sent through the nervous system to tell the different glands when to release their hormones.
125
Name the glands in the endocrine system
* Pituitary gland
* Thyroid gland
* Parathyroids (below thyroid gland, helps regulate level of calcium in the blood)
* adrenal glands
* Pancreas
* Ovaries
* Testes
126
List 3 human behaviours that might be linked to hormones
* Sleep: melatonin
* Love: Oxytocin
* Aggression: testosterone
127
Name the three interacting processes of human behaviour that hormones influence
* sensory input - by the senses
* integration - by the central nervous system
* motor output - by muscles (effectors)
128
Describe how hormones can explain human behaviour
Hormones change the probability that a particular behaviour will happen in certain situations.
They can change the intensity of a behaviour e.g. the higher your cortisol levels the more stressed you might feel.
129
Explain how hormones and behaviour have a reciprocal relationship
Hormones can change behaviours but behaviours can also modulate the levels of hormones produced, e.g. hugging can stimulate the release of oxytocin, so the relationship is reciprocal.
130
Give and example of how hormones have long term influence in the body
Eg. Insulin regulating blood sugar levels throughout life
131
Give two examples of how different hormones affect different target organs and have different purposes.
For example adrenaline is secreted by the adrenal gland effects heart rate; oestrogen is automatically released to maintain menstrual cycle.
132
How do hormones get around the body?
Once hormones have been secreted by a gland,
| they are passed through the bloodstream until they reach a particular destination in the body.
133
Describe how hormones work.
Hormones work by binding with the receptors on target cells specific to the hormone.
The cell will then respond according to its function.
Unlike neurotransmitters, hormones operate all around the body, not just in the CNS and so they usually take longer to work.
Therefore, many of them tend to have a long term influence in the body,
134
Give one example of how
hormones can influence our
sensory systems.
```
Hormones can change how we
perceive our environment.
E.g. oxytocin is released straight
after child birth. This allows the
mother's perception of pain to be
significantly reduced and
facilitates bonding with the baby.
```
135
Describe one example of how
hormones could influence
development in early childhood.
In early childhood, if an individual is
exposed to a stressful environment,
they release the stress hormone
cortisol.
For example in cases of severe, chronic abuse
the regions of the brain involved in fear, anxiety, and impulsive responses may overproduce neural connections while those regions dedicated to reasoning, planning, and behavioural control may produce fewer neural connections.
136
Describe one example of how
hormones could influence
development in the womb
In the womb the development of the brain is influenced by reproductive hormones.
These reproductive hormones impact on sex differences causing female and male brains to develop slightly differently.
Exposure to more testosterone in the womb and puberty could lead to more aggressive behaviour.
137
Describe one example of how
hormones could influence
development in adulthood.
There is evidence that the brain is still changing in later adulthood and is influenced by hormones. For example, hormonal imbalances in adulthood can result in brain changes that make a person more susceptible to depression, anxiety, alcoholism
and even drug abuse. For example, hormone fluctuations during menopause have been linked to depression.
138
Charles is 14 years old and has been displaying aggressive behaviour.
Recently he has shouted insults at other students and broken classroom equipment in his science lessons. Charles has also been in a fight with the football captain after Charles let in an important goal during the last match of the season.
Describe how hormones could account for Charles's behaviour. [3 marks]
Charles may have an imbalance of testosterone to cortisol which could have contributed to him being aggressive when shouting insults at his peers (1).
Charles may have been exposed to more testosterone in the womb and during puberty which could have lead to him becoming more aggressive in his science class (1).
Letting in an important goal may cause stress but his cortisol levels may not have increased enough to inhibit his aggression and stop the fight with the captain (1).
139
Give two weaknesses of research into the role of hormones in human behaviour
❌A weakness of the research is that it is limited by ethical issues. Because protection of participants from harm is paramount, researchers cannot carry out experiments where they manipulate hormone levels of participants' to see what happens to certain behaviours. This often means that correlational research is used
to look for a link between hormones and behaviours. This means
case and effect links cannot be inferred and scientific credibility is reduced.
❌Reductionism is a problem in this field of research. To take complex
human behaviors and isolate just hormones as the main explanatory factor for that behaviour means that:
•Researchers may be are oversimplifying highly complex biological mechanisms that involve not just one hormone but also neurotransmitters and the functioning of a number of brain structures.
•Researchers may overlook the importance of the influence of the environment and social interactions on human behaviour.
140
Give one similarity of neurotransmitters and hormones
One similarity is that the amount of each can lead to abnormal behaviour. For example, low levels neurotransmitters such as serotonin have been linked with depression.
Similarly, high levels of hormones such as testosterone have been linked with aggression.
141
Give 2 difference of neurotransmitters and hormones
1)One difference is the speed of their action.
For example, neurotransmitters work in split seconds ensuring messages are passed quickly in the brain.
Whereas hormones influence the brain and in a gradual way so that hormones change the probability that a particular behaviour will happen in certain situations.
2)A further difference is their function in the human body.
For example, neurotransmitters are
responsible for allowing neurons to communicate with one another.
Whereas hormones are responsible for affecting numerous processes in the body such as growth, development, mood and metabolism.
142
Describe the term Evolution
Evolution: is the gradual development of different kinds of living organisms from earlier forms throughout the history of the earth.
This gradual development occurs through a process of natural selection.
143
Define the term 'natural selection'.
Natural selection: is a gradual process by which hereditable traits become more or less common in an environment.
The organisms that have traits better adapted to survival in their environment are healthier, live longer and reproduce more frequently - survival of the fittest.
They pass on the genes that made them reproductively fit to their offspring.
144
What is Evolutionary psychology?
Evolutionary psychology is a branch of biological psychology that looks at explaining human behaviour in terms
of how any particular behaviour has aided our survival and successful reproduction to allow the species to survive.
145
Describe the main assumption of
| evolutionary psychology.
The assumption is that, in the same way as physical features have evolved our brain has evolved to allow behaviours to be inherited by offspring
146
According to evolutionary psychology
| theories, what would increase the chances of a behaviour being inherited by offspring?
They must serve an adaptive function in the environment of evolutionary adaptation (EEA)
i.e. offspring inherit behaviours that
allowed parents to survive in their
environment.
147
Name the model that explains why human childhood and juvenile growth is much slower than nonhuman primates
The Brain Growth Model of Prolonged Childhood
148
Give one strength and one weakness of using Evolution by Natural Selection to explain human Behaviour
✅One strength is that there is extensive supporting evidence for the theory of evolution coming from diverse sources for example DNA analysis showing how all species share at least some genes.
❌One weakness is that the evidence for the assumption of evolution limited. For example: There is no physical fossil record for behaviour itself.
And the evidence that exists is correlational rather than cause and effect.
149
How is evolution theory reductionist?
```
This idea argues that human
behaviour can be simplified to the genes inherited by offspring.
factors such as social learning have
little or no influence on complex
behaviour like aggression.
```
150
How is evolution theory deterministic?
```
It assumes that all our behaviours are
determined by genetics and that we
have been pre-programmed by
evolution to behave in certain ways.
Therefore we have little free will.
This could be used as an excuse for socially unacceptable behaviour eg. Aggression
```
151
Describe an evolutionary explanation of human development (4)
1)Language could be explained in terms of genes and brain function.
2)Those in the population that had the genes that made language acquisition easier would be able to communicate more easily and aid their chances of survival and reproduction by being able to plan hunting, share resources and tell stories.
3)Those that didn't have the genes
that made language acquisition easy would therefore be less likely to survive and reproduce.
4)Therefore, by natural selection the gene for language acquisition would be passed onto the next generation whereas those without this gene would be more likely to die out.
152
Recall the main points of the theory of evolution
•Individuals in a species show a wide range of variation. (Caused by random genetic mutations).
•Individuals with characteristics most well adapted to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce and pass on their genes - this is known as survival of the fittest.
•The characteristics that allow these individuals to be successful are inherited by their offspring.
•Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to survive and reproduce. This means that their genes are less likely to be passed on.
•Given enough time, a species will
gradually evolve the best characteristics to enable survival in their environment.
153
How may have aggression developed as a result of evolution by natural selection. Explain how it would ensure survival of the species.
In the environment of evolutionary adaptations (EEA) successful males were physically bigger and stronger and so would be most capable of providing food and protecting their mates and offspring. Males that were more aggressive when resources were threatened or when out hunting would have had an adaptive advantage.
154
Why have humans evolved to have a prolonged period of childhood and juvenile growth?
Humans have evolved to develop our bodies slowly to enable energy to be diverted to the brain.
This allows plenty of time for complex abilities and skills of an adult human to develop.
155
How does the brain growth model of prolonged childhood explain prolonged adolescence of humans compared to other organisms in terms of evolution?
Compared to other animals, humans are able to complete complex tasks. These skills and behaviours greatly increased our ancestors' chances of survival and reproduction. Therefore, humans with these skills survived and reproduced and the skills and behaviours were inherited by the subsequent generations. This has led us to be able to dominate the earth.
However, this means that a high level of competence is needed for adulthood. The time needed for our brain develop all of these behaviours is far longer compared to other animals and the human brains demand for energy is very high during this pre-adult period. Therefore, to allow the huge amount of brain
development needed, this model proposes that humans have evolved to expend less energy on growth of the body, thus slowing and prolonging the pre-adult period physical growth period.
156
Give two strengths of research into the role of hormones in human behaviour
✅Much of the research linking hormones to human behaviours has high levels of scientific credibility
This is because:
•Standardised, objective measurements of hormone levels are possible using blood tests, urine tests and saliva swabs. This gives a high level of validity to the measurements used in the research on, for example. the link between oxytocin and mood.
✅There is an extensive supporting evidence such as aggression. This makes it highly reliable linking hormones to human behaviours as findings have been replicated.
