OP - 9.2: Leadership and Management

Question 1

What is in this topic?

Answer 1

1. Traditional and modern theories of leadership
   * Universalist theories (great person theory, charismatic leadership theory, transformational leadership theory)
   * Behavioural theories of leadership (Ohio & Michigan Uni explanations)
   * Heifetz’ 6 principles in meeting adaptive challenges (GRIM-GP)
2. Leadership style
   * Mucyk and Reimann’s 4 styles of leader behaviour (DA, PA, DD, PD)
   * Scouller’s levels of leadership (public, private, personal)
   * Cuadrado et al.
3. Leaders and followers
   * Kouzes and Posner’s 5 practices of exemplary leadership (MICEE) and LPI
   * Kelley’s followership (CAPEP)

Question 2

What key features of good followers did Kelley find?

Answer 2

1. Independent critical thinking, as contrasted with dependent uncritical thinking
2. whether follower has ACTIVE or PASSIVE participation in working towards goals

Question 3

Name Kelley’s followership styles

Answer 3

CAPEP

1. Conformist (yes people)
2. Alienated
3. Passive (sheep)
4. Exemplary
5. Pragmatic survivors

Question 4

Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘conformist’ style

Answer 4

• depend on leader for inspiration, usually totally obedient and never question orders
• bosses weak in self-confidence seem to like them, but they can cause organisation to lose initative

Question 5

Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘alienated’ style

Answer 5

• critical in thinking, but passive when doing job
• have become negative and resentful, but don’t go openly against bosses (whisper on sidelines)

Question 6

Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘passive’ style

Answer 6

• lack initiative and responsibility
• passive in thinking and engagement
• motivated by leader, NOT THEMSELVES

Question 7

Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘exemplary’ style

Answer 7

• think for themselves, have positive energy, actively engaged

Question 8

Elaborate on Kelley’s ‘pragmatic survivor’ style

Answer 8

• only show minimal independent thinking, only get involved when they see the direction a situation is heading
• can often see things going bad before others can (best at surviving change in an organisation)

Question 9

What are Kouzes and Posner’s practices of exemplary leadership? Outline them.

Answer 9

1. Model the way: leaders set an example for others to follow
2. Inspire a shared vision: leaders enlist others in their plans
3. Challenge the process: leaders seek change and ways to improve the organisation
4. Enable others to lead: leaders foster collaboration
5. Encourage the heart: leaders keep hope and determination alive. Rewards are shared

Question 10

Describe what the LPI is.

Answer 10

• K&P created the LPI to measure the 5 practices of exemplary leadership.
• LPI is a questionnaire containing 6 behavioural statements for each practice
• Statements rated on 10-point scale (1 = almost never, 10 = almost always)

1. Leader completes LPI-Self
2. 5-10 other people complete LPI-Observer about the leader

Question 11

Give examples of statements from the LPI.

Answer 11

• Sets a personal example of what is expected (Model)
• Describes a compelling image of the future (Inspire)
• Treats others with dignity and respect (Enable)

Question 12

Give supporting research about the effectiveness of the LPI.

Answer 12

• K&P involved 2876 managers and observers from a wide variety of organisations.
• Found that results between the managers and observers were similar in terms of rank order.
• No significant difference between genders
• Type of organisation didn’t significantly affect results

Question 13

What is the context behind Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 13

1. Eagly et al. found that female leaders were evaluated poorly compared to men when they adopted stereotypically masculine leadership styles, when they were evaluated by men
2. Men were not evaluated less favourably than women when they adopted stereotypically feminine leadership styles
3. This led to the development of the role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders.
4. Role congruity theory: **when men and women are evaluated less favourably when they are selected to perform a task not congruent to their gender””

Question 14

What is the aim of Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 14

To investigate whether female leaders are evaluated less favourably than male leaders when they adopt a stereotypically male leadership style.

Question 15

What are the hypotheses of Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 15

1. Female leaders will be evaluated less favourably than male leaders when they adopt stereotypically male leadership style (autocratic and task-oriented).
2. Male leaders will not be evaluated less favourably than female leaders when they adopt stereotypically female leadership style (democratic and relationship-oriented).
3. Female leaders will be evaluated less favourably by male evaluators than female evaluators
4. Male evaluators will receive similar evaluations from male and female evaluators

Question 16

What was the sample in Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 16

• 136 second-year social psychology students in the National Open University of Spain
• mean age: 29 years
• 53% women, 47% men
• participants received credit for participation

Question 17

What was the IV in Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 17

1. Male leader, stereotypically male leadership style
2. Male leader, stereotypically female leadership style
3. Female leader, stereotypically male leadership style
4. Female leader, stereotypically female leadership style

Question 18

What was the DV in Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 18

• 14 adjectives (7 positive, 7 negative) selected from previous research
• Leadership efficacy of supervisor
• Leadership capacity of supervisor

Question 19

Give 3 examples of the positive adjectives used in Cuadrado et al.

Answer 19

intelligent, honest, clever

Question 20

Give 3 examples of the negative adjectives used in Cuadrado et al.

Answer 20

careless, forgetful, bossy

Question 21

What was the CV in Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 21

1. Standardisation of rating scales
2. Standardisation of narrative
3. Random allocation of participants into their groups to reduce participant variables

Question 22

What was the research method(s) and design of Cuadrado et al.?

Answer 22

• RM: experiment, with 4 experimental conditions
• Design: independent measures, with a 2x2 design (male vs female leadership style, male vs female leader)
• Data collection technique: structured questionnaire, with rating scales

Question 23

Describe the procedure of Cuadrado et al.

Answer 23

1. Prior to the study, participants were randomly allocated to one of 4 experimental groups (34 in each condition)
2. Study uses a narrative (written account) which describes the behaviour of a leader in an organisational setting
3. Participants were told to imagine that they were apart of an emergency service in a public hospital. Because gender-neutral setting, where there’s doctors (stereotypically male role) and nurses (stereotypically female role)
4. Participants were told to evaluate a supervisor occupying that position for a trial period. Only difference being gender & leadership style
5. Participants told to complete anonymous questionnaire which was to help with evaluation process
6. Questionnaire used range of different measures:

• List of 14 adjectives (7 pos, 7 neg). Ppts told to rate adjectives based on how well it applied to the supervisor. 7 point rating scale: 1 = never, 7, always
• Leadership effectiveness of supervisor: used 7-point rating scale - 1 = totally positive/agree, 7 = totally negative/disagree
  * e.g. “How would you evaluate X’s general achievement as a supervisor?”
• Leadership capacity of supervisor: used 7 point rating scale - 1 = totally positive/agree, 7 = totally negative/disagree

Question 24

What were the findings of Cuadrado et al?

Answer 24

• Independent of sex, leaders who adopt a stereotypically female leadership obtain significantly more favourable evaluations on all 3 dependent variables
  Leadership style of stereotypically female score in:
  Adjective list: 5.51
  Leadership efficacy: 5.41
  Leadership capacity: 5.48
• Both males and females received less favourable evaluations with male stereotypical leadership styles
  (Therefore the results don’t support Hypothesis 1)
• No differences in evaluations received by male and female leaders when they adopted stereotypical female styles Therefore results support Hypothesis 2

Question 25

Conclusions of Cuadrado et al.

Answer 25

* Males don’t favour leaders of their own sex * Stereotypically female leadership styles are more valued than stereotypically male leadership styles in **modern organisations**.

Question 26

Methodological strengths of Cuadrado et al.

Answer 26

1. Measurements used for dependent variables produce quantitative data * therefore objective, reliable 2. Uses standardised procedure * e.g. uses standardised narrative and rating scales * therefore reliable

Question 27

Methodological weaknesses of Cuadrado et al.

Answer 27

1. Artificiality of task (lacks mundane realism) * written account was used rather than emulating true dynamics of workplace * therefore lowers validity 2. unrepresentative population * uses psych students from one uni in Spain, therefore they may have more theoretical knowledge about role congruity theory * therefore lowers population validity

Question 28

How can Cuadrado et al. be applied to everyday life?

Answer 28

* showed that stereotypical female management styles were evaluated more highly and seen as more effective than stereotypical male leadership styles. * can be applied in the workforce and training targeted to ensure that managers, and potential managers, are aware of the different styles and how to get the best out of their workforce.

Question 29

Issues and Debates of Cuadrado et al.

Answer 29

1. Reductionist: **broke down leadership effectiveness and capacity into rating scales, and 14 adjectives. No insight into individual reasons behind rating an individual in a certain way** 2. Situational: **female behaving in a stereotypically male way (incongruent of their gender) would make them likely to be evaluated poorly, as the behaviour is contradicts the perceived role of a woman which is more democratic and relationship-oriented**. 3. Nomothetic: **uses experimental methodology including the use of structured questionnaires to measure the dependent variables.** * Idiographic approach can be used with qualitative methods like unstructured qs and interviews, to give insight into evaluations given

Question 30

According to Scouller, what are the **dimensions of leadership**?

Answer 30

1. Motivating purpose: **setting a purpose that inspires people towards a shared goal** 2. Upholding group unity & spirit 3. Task progress results: **checking pace & quality of progress towards goal** 4. Attending to individual effectiveness (MUTA) - These dimensions can only be achieved through working on the 3 leadership levels simultaneously.

Question 31

What are Scouller's levels of leadership? Explain what they mean.

Answer 31

3Ps 1. Public leadership: leader's actions in a group setting (e.g. in a group meeting, trying to influence whole org.) 2. Private leadership: leader's 1-1 handling of the group 3. Personal leadership: seen by their leadership, skills, self-mastery, presence (**most influential of the 3**)

Question 32

What categories are under public leadership?

Answer 32

34 behaviours placed in 5 categories (ABCES) 1. Achieving group task 2. Building trust and togetherness 3. Creating peer pressure to ensure high performance standards 4. Ensuring unity of purpose 5. Setting a vision

Question 33

What categories are under private leadership?

Answer 33

14 behaviours placed in 2 categories (2Is) 1. Individual task behaviour: **through appraisal, discipline, review** 2. Individual building and maintenance: **relationship-building and assessing people's talents, commitment, etc.**

Question 34

What categories are under personal leadership?

Answer 34

3 categories (TAS) 1. Technical: **individual and group psychology, and time-management** 2. Attitude: **believing people are important & gain their trust** 3. Self-mastery theory: **self-awareness and connecting with values to serve workers**

Question 35

What are Muczyk & Reinmann's styles of leadership behaviour? Define them.

Answer 35

1. directive autocrat: strong direction from leaders, no employee participation in decision-making 2. directive democrat: strong direction from leaders, high employee participation in decision-making 3. permissive autocrat: far less close monitoring from leaders, no employee participation in decision-making 4. permissive democrat: far less/no monitoring from leaders, high employee participation in decision-making

Question 36

When can **directive** autocrat style be used?

Answer 36

* **quick action needs to be taken** * relationship between leaders and followers breaks down

Question 37

When can directive **democrat** style be used?

Answer 37

* quick action needs to be taken * **workforce has enough experience**

Question 38

When can permissive autocrat style be used?

Answer 38

* speed of decision-making not important * task is complex

Question 39

When can permissive **democrat** style be used?

Answer 39

* rules and regulations in place * **workforce has enough experience**

Question 40

Define universalist theories

Answer 40

early and simple theories of leadership that search for a set of characteristics held by effective leaders (universal to all leaders)

Question 41

What are the 3 universalist theories?

Answer 41

1. Great person (man) theory 2. Charismatic leadership theory 3. Transformational leadership theory

Question 42

Define 'great person (man) theory'

Answer 42

* suggests that leaders are born, not made * possesses certain characteristics that are inherited (subjective, hard to measure)

Question 43

Define 'charismatic leadership theory'

Answer 43

* charismatic leaders are popular, communicative and inspirational * expects highest standards from themselves and others

Question 44

Define 'transformational leadership theory'

Answer 44

* transformational leaders inspire positive change IN their followers * role models to their followers, allowing them to take ownership of their work

Question 45

What are Warrilow's characteristics of transformational leaders?

Answer 45

4Is: 1. Inspirational motivation: degree to which leader has **vision that appeals to followers** 2. Idealised influence: degree to which leader behaves in **admirable way** 3. Intellectual stimulation: degree to which leader **challenges and encourages creativity** 4: Individualised consideration: degree to which leader **attends to individualised needs** -- helps follower grow as a person

Question 46

Define behaviourist theories

Answer 46

* a response to the inability of universalist theories to isolate and measure **inherited characteristics** needed to be a leader * focuses on **observed behaviours** (how someone must behave to be a successful leader)

Question 47

Describe Ohio Uni's behaviourist explanation.

Answer 47

* researchers at Ohio Uni developed LBDQ to investigate behaviours exhibited by leaders * questioned **followers in military, education and industry** with 5-point rating scale * found 2 clusters of behaviours: 1. Initiating (structural) behaviours: task-related behaviours where leader gives STRUCTURE to workforce * sets expectations like performance standrds * gives feedback * coordinates group tasks within a group * in extreme: lower worker autonomy; lower motivation 2. Consideration (nurturing) behaviours: people-related behaviours that focus on relationship & welfare of workers * friendly, supportive, available * leader looks for areas of improvement, and S&Ws

Question 48

Describe Michigan Uni's behaviourist explanation.

Answer 48

* looked at impact of leader behaviour on **smaller groups**, using questionnaire similar to LBDQ * found 2 types of behaviours: 1. Product orientation (similar to initiating): workers are seen as means to an end; cogs in a machine 2. Employee orientation (similar to consideration): takes interest in workers as human beings

Question 49

Define adaptive challenges (Heifetz)

Answer 49

challenges that arise when beliefs and values are challenged, and competing values and perspectives re-emerge

Question 50

Why are adaptive challenges difficult for workers?

Answer 50

1. Workers have to adapt and change (learn new roles and responsibilities) 2. Often, workers want leaders to take all responsibility

Question 51

What are Heifetz' 6 principles in meeting adaptive challenges?

Answer 51

GRIM-GP 1. Get on the balcony: **step back and take objective view from distance to see bigger picture** 2. Regulate distress: **allow views to be expressed, manage conflict** 3. Identify the adaptive challenge 4. Maintain disciplined attention: **confront different values, allowing all voices to be heard** 5. Give work back to the people: **empower them to lead & problem-solve** 6. Protect voices of leadership from below: **listen to & protect whistleblowers and creative deviants, as they can show approach to change**