Option 3: Aggression Flashcards

Question

explain a study which explains the adaptive functions of aggression

Answer 1

Pettit et al. (1988) studied play groups of young human children and observed how aggression played an important role in the development of some children's dominance over others. this would be adaptive because dominance over others brings benefits such as power to get your own way and access to resources.

Answer 2

– a ritual is a series of behaviours carried out in a set order. – one of Lorenz's early observations of fights between animals of the same species was how little actual physical damage was done. most aggressive encounters consisted mainly of a period of ritualistic signalling (e.g. displaying claws and teeth, facial expressions of threat) and rarely reached the point of becoming physical. – furthermore, Lorenz pointed out that intra–species aggressive confrontations end with ritual appeasement displays. these indicate acceptance of defeat and inhibit aggressive behaviour in the victor, preventing any damage to the loser. e.g. at the end of an aggressive confrontation of a wolf will expose its neck to the victor, deliberately making itself vulnerable to a single bite to its jugular vein. – this is adaptive because if every aggressive encounter ended with the death of one of the combatants, that could threaten the existence of the species.

Answer 3

a biological structure or process in the brain which is activated by an external stimulus that in turn triggers a fixed action pattern.

Answer 4

a sequence of stereotyped pre-programmed behaviours triggered by an innate releasing mechanism.

Answer 5

stereotype — the behaviour always occurs in the same form. universality — the same behaviour is found in every individual of a species. independence of experience (innate) — the behaviour is not learnt. ballistic — the behaviour cannot be changed, once initiated. single–purpose — the behaviour only occurs in a specific situation and cannot be used elsewhere. triggering stimulus — the behaviour is triggered by certain known stimuli.

Answer 6

procedure = male sticklebacks are highly territorial during the spring mating season, when they also develop a red spot on their underbelly. if another male enters their territory, a sequence of highly stereotyped aggressive behaviours is initiated (FAP). the sign stimulus that triggers the innate releasing mechanism is the sight of the red spot. Tinbergen (1951) presented sticklebacks with a series of wooden models of different shapes. findings = if the model had the red spot, the stickleback would aggressively display and even attack it. no red spot equals no aggression, even if the model looked like a stickleback. the aggressive FAPs were also unchanging from one encounter to another. once triggered the FAP always ran its course to completion.

Answer 7

an account of the changes in species over millions of years; characteristics that enhance survival and reproduction are naturally selected.

Answer 8

sexual jealousy is a major motivator of aggressive behaviour in males which can be given an evolutionary explanation. this is because men can never be totally sure about whether or not they have truly fathered a child. this paternity uncertainty is a result of the very real threat for the male of cuckoldry, or having to raise offspring that are not his own. an investment in offspring that do not share the male's genes is a waste of his resources. it contributes to survival of a rival's genes and leaves the 'father' with fewer resources to invest in his own future offspring.

Answer 9

direct guarding — involves male viligance over a partner's behaviour for example; checking who they've been seeing, coming home early, keeping tabs on their whereabouts, installing tracking apps on their mobiles, etc. negative inducements — such as issuing threats of dire consequences for infidelity ('i'll kill myself if you leave me.')

Answer 10

Wilson et al. found that women who reported mate retention strategies in their partners were twice as likely to have suffered physical violence at the hands of their partners. of these women 73% required medical attention and 53% said they feared for their lives.

Answer 11

Shackleford et al. (2005) studied intimate partner violence (IPV) in heterosexual couples. procedure: men and women in 107 married couples completed different questionnaires. all of the ppts had been married less than a year. the men completed the mate retention inventory, which assessed mate retention behaviours in various categories. the women completed the spouse influence report, which measured the extent of their partner's violence in their relationship. findings: there was a strong positive correlation between men's report of their mate retention behaviours and women's reports of their partners' physical violence. so men who use guarding or negative inducements were more likely to use physical violence against their partners.

Answer 12

bullying occurs because of a power imbalance: a more powerful individual uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against a weaker person. researchers have traditionally viewed bullying as a maladaptive behaviour. however, our evolutionary ancestors may have used bullying as an adaptive strategy to increase their chances of survival by promoting their own health and creating opportunities for reproduction.

Answer 13

– Volk et al. (2012) argues that characteristics associated with bullying behaviour are attractive to the opposite sex. – in males, it suggests dominance, acquisition of resources and strength. it also has a benefit of warding off potential rivals. it delivers the ideal combination of access to more females and minimal threat from competing males. therefore such behaviour would be naturally selected because these males would have greater reproductive success. – female bullying more often takes place within a relationship and is a method of controlling a partner. women use bullying behaviour to secure their partner's fidelity, which means they continue to provide resources for future offspring. such behaviour would be naturally selected because of enhanced reproductive success.

Answer 14

any theory that argues aggression is the result of an interaction between an individual's characteristics and features of the situations in which behaviour occurs.

Answer 15

Dollard and his colleagues (1939) first formulated the frustration-aggression hypothesis. the hypothesis is based on the psychodynamic concept of catharsis, and views aggression as a psychological drive akin to biological drives such as hunger. if our attempt to achieve a goal is blocked by some external factor, we experience frustration. this creates an aggressive drive which leads to aggressive behaviour.

Answer 16

it is cathartic because the aggression created by the frustration is satisfied, thereby reducing the drive and making further aggression less likely.

Answer 17

– the cause of our frustration may be abstract, such as the government, the music industry or a teacher. – the cause may be too powerful and we risk punishment by aggressing against it, for example the teacher who gave you a lower grade than expected but is too strict. – the cause may just be unavailable at the time, for example perhaps the teacher left before you realised what grade you got.

Answer 18

an alternative that is not abstract, is weaker and is a available

Answer 19

Geen (1968) carried out a study to investigate the effects of frustration aggression. Procedure: male university students were given the task of completing a jigsaw puzzle. their level of frustration was experimentally manipulated in one of three ways. - one way = the puzzle was impossible to solve - second way = they ran out of time because a confederate kept interfering. - third way = the confederate took to insulting the participant as they failed to solve the puzzle. the next part of the study involved the ppts giving electric shocks to the confederate when they made a mistake on another task. Findings: the insulted ppts gave the strongest shocks on average, followed by the interfered group, then the impossible task ppts. all three groups selected more intense shocks than a control group.

Answer 20

according to Berkowitz (1989), frustration merely creates a readiness for aggression. but the presence of aggressive cues in the environment makes acting upon this much more likely. therefore cues are an additional element of the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

Answer 21

study: Berkowitz & LePage (1967) procedure: they arranged for students ppts to be given electric shocks in a laboratory situation, creating anger and frustration. the individual who gave the shocks was a confederate of the researchers. the ppts then had the opportunity to turn the tables and give electric shocks to the confederate. findings: the number of shocks depended on the presence or absence of weapons in the lab. in one condition, 2 guns were present on a table next to the shock machine. the average number of shocks given in this condition was 6.07. when no guns were present, the average number of shocks was 4.67, significantly lower. conclusion: this so-called weapons effect supports Berkowitz's contention that the presence of aggressive environmental cues stimulates aggression.

Answer 22

– in SLT, Bandura acknowledged that aggression can be learned directly through mechanisms of operant conditioning involving positive and negative reinforcement and punishment. – a child who angrily snatches a toy off another child will learn that aggressive behaviour is rewarding. direct reinforcement makes it more likely that the child will behave aggressively again in a similar situation. – Bandura also realised that aggressive behaviour often cannot be explained by such direct forms of learning so he argued that an indirect mechanism — observational learning — accounts for social learning of most aggressive behaviours.

Answer 23

– children acquire specific aggressive behaviours through observing models such as siblings, parents, peers etc. from this, the child has learned about aggressive behaviour, yet it does not mean they themselves will behave aggressively. – whilst observing the behaviour of the models, children also observe the consequences of their behaviour. if the models' aggressive behaviour is rewarded, then the child learns that aggression can be effective in getting what they want. this is known as vicarious reinforcement. it makes it more likely for the child to imitate the model's behaviour. – vicarious punishment, its parallel form, is where if the model's behaviour is punished then the child is unlikely to imitate it.

Answer 24

attention retention reproduction motivation

Answer 25

a basic cognitive requirement is that the observer must pay attention to the model's aggressive actions

Answer 26

the observer also needs to be able to remember the model's aggressive actions, to form a symbolic mental representation of how the behaviour is performed.

Answer 27

the observer must be able to transform the mental representation of the aggressive behaviour into actual physical action. this involves the individual mentally appraising their ability to do this.

Answer 28

the observer needs a reason to imitate behaviour, which will depend on their expectations that behaving aggressively in a specific situation will be rewarding.

Answer 29

where we believe our actions will achieve a desired goal.

Answer 30

– a child's confidence in their ability to be aggressive grows as they learn that aggression can bring rewards. – when a child completes aggressive behaviour, sees that they are able to get a reward out of it but also sees that they are good at doing it, it will increase their sense of self-efficacy. a child will be confident to increase their aggressive behaviour because they learn that aggression works and they are good at it.

Answer 31

a psychological state in which an individual loses their personal identity and takes on the identity of the social group when, for example, in a crowd or wearing a uniform. the result may be to free the individual from the constraints of social norms.

Answer 32

– Le Bon (1895) coined the term de-individuation to explain the behaviour of individuals in crowds. in everyday life, as an individual, we are easily identified, and our behaviour is influenced by social norms (society discourages aggression). when we are in a crowd, we lose restraint and have the freedom to behave in ways we wouldn't otherwise contemplate. – LeBon argues this is because in crowds we lose our sense of self-identity and responsibility for our actions which means we can disregard social norms and even laws. responsibility is diffused across people in the crowds so there is less personal guilt.

Answer 33

Zimbardo (1969) distinguished between de-individuated and individuated behaviours: – in a de-individuated state, our behaviours are emotional, impulsive, irrational and disinhibited which means, we lose self-awareness and stop monitoring and regulating our own behaviours. we 'live in the moment' failing to form longer term plans. – in an individuated state, our behaviour is generally rational and normative (i.e. it conforms to social norms).

Answer 34

darkness drugs alcohol uniforms, masks and disguises

Answer 35

according to Dunn & Rogers (1982) de-individuation leads to aggression, not due to anonymity but instead as a consequence of anonymity. they explain this is terms of 2 types of awareness.

Answer 36

private self-awareness public self-awareness

Answer 37

how we pay attention to our own feelings and behaviour. this is reduced when we are in a crowd, we are less self-critical and less evaluative of ourselves which leads to a de-individuated state.

Answer 38

how much we care about what other people think of our behaviour, also reduces in crowds. we realise we are just one person among many; we are anonymous, and our behaviour is less likely to be judged by others. we become less accountable for our behaviour.

Answer 39

Dodd (1985) was a psychology teacher who developed a classroom exercise to illustrate de-individuation. procedure: he asked 229 undergraduate psychology students in 13 classes this question: 'if you could do anything humanly possible with complete assurance that you would not be detected or held responsible, what would you do?' the students were aware that their responses were completely anonymous. three independent raters who did not know the hypothesis decided which categories of antisocial behaviour the responses belonged to. findings: Dodd found that 36% of the responses involved some form of antisocial behaviour; 26% were actual criminal acts, the most common of which was 'rob a bank'. a few students opted for murder, rape and assassination of a political figure. only 9% of responses were prosocial behaviours (such as helping people). in terms of how people imagine they would behave, this study demonstrates a link between anonymity, de-individuation and aggressive behaviour.

Answer 40

aggressive or violent behaviour that takes place within the social context of a prison or other formal organised settings

Answer 41

any explanations of behaviour that highlights the importance of the individual's personality.

Answer 42

any explanation that identifies the causes of behaviour as existing within the environment, which may include other people.

Answer 43

– this model was developed by Irwin and Cressely. it argues that prisons are not completely insulated from the happenings from everyday life outside in the 'real world'. – it is said that the prison inmates come and bring with them a subculture typical of criminality. this includes beliefs, values, norms, attitudes and a history of learning experiences as well as other personal characteristics such as gender, race and class. – Thomas and McManimon (2005) put it as '... people who prey on others of the streets also prey on others in the prison'. inmates import such behaviours as a means of negotiating their way through the unfamiliar and frightening prison environment in which existing inmates use aggression to establish power, status, influence and access to resources. – therefore, aggression is the product of individual characteristics of inmates and not the prison environment.

Answer 44

procedure: DeLisi and his colleagues (2011) studied 813 juvenile delinquents confined in institutions in California. these were inmates who brought into confinement, several negative dispositional features such as experiences of childhood trauma, high levels of anger and irritability, a history of substance abuse and a history of violent behaviour. findings: these inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity and sexual misconduct, and committed more acts of physical violence that were brought to the attention of the parole board (compared with a control group of inmates with fewer negative dispositional features).

Answer 45

– Clemmer's (1958) deprivation model places the causes of institutional aggression within the prison environment itself. – harsh prison conditions are stressful for inmates, who have to cope by resorting to aggressive and often violent behaviour. these conditions include being deprived of freedom, independence, goods and services, safety and heterosexual intimacy. – deprivation of material goods is especially importnat because it increases competition amongts inmates to acquire them, and is accompanied by a corresponding increase in aggression. – aggression is also influenced by the nature of the prison regime. it is unpredictable and regularly uses 'lock ups' to control behaviour, which then creates frustration, reduces stimulation by barring other more interesting activities and reduces even further access to 'goods'. this is a recipe to violence, which becomes an adaptive solution to the problem of deprivation.

Answer 46

procedure: Steiner (2009) investigated the factors that predicted intimate aggression in 512 prisons in the United States. findings: he found that inmate-on-inmate violence was more common in prisons where there were higher proportions of female staff, African-American inmates, Hispanic inmates and inmates in protective custody for their own safety. these are all prison-level factors because they are independent of the individual characteristics of prisoners – they reliably predicted aggressive behaviour in line with the deprivation model.

Answer 47

communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available.

Answer 48

experimental studies — usually lab-based and look at short-term effects. correlational studies — can investigate real-life variables and may be short term. longitudinal studies meta-analysis

Answer 49

– in a lab-based study by Bartholow and Anderson (2002), students played either a violent computer game (Mortal Kombat) or a non-violent game (PGA Tournament Golf) for ten minutes. – they all then carried out the Taylor Competitive Reaction Time Task (TCRTT), a standard laboratory measure of aggression in which the students delivered blasts of white noise at chosen volumes to punish a non-existent opponent. – those who played the violent game selected significantly higher noise levels compared with the non-violent players.

Answer 50

– DeLisi et al. (2013) studied 227 juvenile offenders, all with histories of serious aggressive behaviours such as hitting a teacher or parent, or gang fighting. – using structured interviews, they gathered data on several measures of aggression and violent computer game-playing. they found that the offenders' aggressive behaviour was significantly correlated with how often they played violent computer games and how much they enjoyed them. – the researchers argued that the link is so well-established that aggression should be considered a public health issue, like HIV/AIDS, and computer game violence a significant risk factor, like condom non-use.

Answer 51

– Robertson et al. (2013) wanted to see if there was a link between what they called 'excessive' television viewing in childhood and aggressive behaviour in adulthood. they studied 1037 people born in New Zealand in 1972 & 1973, and measured their TV viewing hours at regular up to the age of 26 years. – they found that time spent watching TV was a reliable predictor of aggressive behaviour in adulthood, measured in terms of convictions for aggressive and violent crimes. those who watched the most TV were also more likely to be diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder and to have aggressive personality traits. – it appears that the most important media-related factor in influencing aggressive behaviour may be the amount of TV watched rather than whether it has violent context or not.

Answer 52

– Anderson et al.'s (2010) meta-analysis of 136 studies included experimental, correlational, longitudinal research. – exposure to violent computer games was associated with increases in aggressive behaviours, thoughts and feelings. this applied to both males and females and across collectivist and individualist cultures. – Anderson et al. (2010) claim the effect of violent game-playing on aggressive behaviour is greater than the effect of second-hand smoke on cancer. the analysis also showed no indication that publication bias influenced the results.

Answer 53

repeated exposure to violence reduces normal levels of physiological and psychological arousal associated with anxiety, making aggressive behaviour more likely.

Answer 54

when we witness violent actions we experience physiological arousal associated with the sympathetic nervous system, such as increased heart rate, higher blood pressure, greater sweat activity, and so on. however, when children in particular repeatedly view aggression on TV or play violent computer games, they become habituated to its effects. and so, a stimulus that is usually aversive has a diminishing impact, resulting in a reduction of anxiety and physiological arousal on repeated viewing or playing.

Answer 55

a laboratory study conducted by Weisz and Earls (1995). they showed their ppts the feature film, Straw Dogs, which contains a prolonged and graphic scene of rape. ppts then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial. compared with those who watched a non-sexually violent film, male viewers of Straw Dogs showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression. they also expressed less empathy towards the rape victim in the trial, and were less likely to find the defendant guilty. there was no such effect of film type on female ppts.

Answer 56

normal social constraints against certain behaviours can be weakened by environmental triggers. these behaviours then appear temporarily socially accepted and therefore more likely.

Answer 57

– most people generally hold the view that violence and aggression are antisocial and harmful. consequently, there are too powerful social and psychological inhibitors against using aggression to resolve interpersonal conflicts. – according to the disinhibition explanation, these usual restraints are loosened after exposure to violent media. aggressive behaviour is often made to appear normative and socially sanctioned in such media, especially if portrayals minimise the effects of violence on its victims and suggest that it is justified. it is not unusual for video games to show violence being rewarded at the same time as its consequences are minimised or ignored. this creates new social norms in the viewer.

Answer 58

violent images provide us with ready-made scripts about aggression which are stored in memory and triggered when we perceive aggressive cues in a situation.

Answer 59

according to Huesmann (1998), this script is stored in memory, and so we become 'ready' or primed to be aggressive. the process is mostly automatic, it can direct our behaviour without us even being aware of it. the script is triggered when we encounter cues in a situation that we perceive as aggressive.

Answer 60

a study by Meyer (2006). they looked at the priming of aggressive scripts in memory by investigating a neglected form of media violence — song lyrics. male ppts listened to songs featuring aggressively derogatory lyrics about women. compared with when they listened to neutral lyrics, ppts subsequently recalled more negative qualities about women and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate. this procedure was replicated with female ppts, using 'men-hating' song lyrics, with similar results.

Option 3: Aggression Flashcards

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