Origins and approaches Flashcards
(129 cards)
1
Q
What is psychology?
A
The scientific study of the human mind and it’s functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context
2
Q
What is science?
A
A means of acquiring knowledge through systematic and objective investigation and the aim is to discover general laws
3
Q
What three people developed psychology’s early philosophical roots?
A
(1) Rene Descartes
(2) John Locke
(3) Charles Darwin
4
Q
What did Rene Descartes suggest?
A
That the mind and the body are independent from each other and this is known as Cartesian dualism
5
Q
What did John Locke suggest?
A
He proposed the idea of empiricism (the idea that all experience can be obtained through the senses and) and that knowledge or instincts were not inherited
Formed the basis of the behavioural approach
6
Q
What did Charles Darwin suggest?
A
He proposed the evolutionary theory that individuals with more adaptive genes survive and reproduce and individuals with the weaker genes do not
This is part of the biological approach
7
Q
Who opened the first psychology lab?
A
Willhelm Wundt
8
Q
What method did Wundt use?
A
Introspection
9
Q
What is introspection?
A
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations
10
Q
What is the name for when we break down our conscious awareness into basic structures?
A
Structuralism
11
Q
How was introspection controlled?
A
(1) the introspections were recorded under strictly controlled conditions
(2) they used the same stimulus every time
(3) the same standardised instructions were used which allows the procedure to be repeated (high reliability)
12
Q
Why was Wundt’s work significant?
A
It separated modern scientific psychology from its broader philosophical roots
13
Q
Who was Watson?
A
A behaviourist
14
Q
Why did Watson criticise introspection?
A
(1) it produced subjective data which therefore makes it difficult to establish general principles
(2) critical of introspections focus on private mental processes and proposed that a truly scientific psychology should be observed and measured
15
Q
How did Watson and Skinner bring about a scientific approach?
A
They brought the language, rigour and methods of the natural sciences into psychology and used carefully controlled lab experiments
16
Q
What happened after the cognitive revolution?
A
The study of mental processes is now seen as a legitimate and highly scientific area within psychology as although these processes remain private psychologists are able to make inferences
17
Q
What other approach is highly scientific due to its use of the experimental method?
A
The biological approach
18
Q
How is the biological approach scientific?
A
Recent advances in technology such as scanning techniques have allowed psychologist to study the brain in more depth
19
Q
What is the behaviourist approach?
A
A way of explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and in terms of learning
20
Q
What are the assumptions of the behaviourist approach?
A
(1) only interested in studying behaviour that is observable and measurable
(2) they maintain more control and objectivity within their research (e.g. through lab experiments)
(3) believe that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species
(4) support the use of animal studies
21
Q
What are the two types of conditioning?
A
(1) classical conditioning
(2) operant conditioning
22
Q
What is classical conditioning?
A
Learning by association
23
Q
What is operant conditioning?
A
A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences
24
Q
What behaviourist did research into classical conditioning?
A
Ivan Pavlov
25
What behaviourist did research into operant conditioning?
BF Skinner
26
Describe Pavlov’s study into classical conditioning?
Pavlov taught dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell and there were many steps to this process:
(1) the food which was a unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produced salivation which is an unconditioned response (UCR)
(2) the bell which was a neutral stimulus (NS) was rung every time food was presented to the dogs
(3) over time the dog learns to associate the sound of the bell which is now a conditioned stimulus (CS) with food and they begin to salivate at the sound of the bell and therefore this is a conditioned response (CR)
27
Describe Skinner’s study of operant conditioning?
Skinner conducted experiments with rats and pigeons which he placed in a Skinner box and every time the rest activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet and therefore they would continue to perform this behaviour
He also conditioned them to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus such as an electric shock
28
What is positive reinforcement?
Receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed and therefore this behaviour continues
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What is negative reinforcement?
Occurs when an animal or human avoids something unpleasant and therefore this behaviour is reproduced
30
What is punishment?
An unpleasant consequence of behaviour and decreases the likelihood of the behaviour being repeated
31
What are some strengths of the behaviourist approach?
(1) SCIENTIFIC CREDIBILITY
- the behaviourist approach incorporated the language and methods used by the natural sciences into psychology and therefore they use highly controlled experimental methods and therefore this approach has been influential in the development of psychology
(2) REAL-LIFE APPLICATION
- the principles of conditioning have had real-world application such as the token economy systems that are used in prisons where inmates receive tokens by behaving correcting and then exchange them for privileges. It has also been useful in treating phobias
32
What are the limitations of the behaviourist approach?
(1) ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM
- this approach sees behaviour as determined by past experiences that have been conditioned and therefore ignores the possible influence of free will claiming that it is an illusions and instead something happens as a result of our past conditioning history and not our decisions
(2) ETHICAL AND PRACTICAL ISSUES IN ANIMAL EXPERIMENTS
- critics have questioned the ethics of such studies like Skinners as the animals involved are exposed to stressful and aversive conditions which affect how they may react to the experimental situation
(3) MECHANISTIC VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR
- animals and humans are viewed as passive and machine-like responders to the environment, with little or no conscious insight into their behaviour
33
What is social learning theory?
A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combining learning theory with the role of cognitive factors
34
What are the assumptions of social learning theory?
(1) agree with behaviourists that behaviour is learned from experience
(2) people learn through observation and imitation within social contexts
(3) suggests that learning occurs directly through classical and operant conditioning and also indirectly
35
What psychologist proposed social learning theory?
Albert Bandura
36
What is vicarious reinforcement?
Reinforcement which is not directly experienced but occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour and this is a key factor in imitation
37
What are mediational processes?
Cognitive factors that influence learning and come between stimulus and response
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What is social learning theory a bridge between?
Traditional learning theory and the cognitive approach
39
What are the 4 mediational processes in learning identified by Bandura?
(1) attention
(2) retention
(3) motor reproduction
(4) motivation
40
What is imitation?
Copying the behaviour of others
41
What is attention?
The extent so which we notice certain behaviours
42
What is retention?
How well the behaviour is remembered
43
What is motor reproduction?
The ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
44
What is motivation?
The will to perform the behaviour which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
45
What is identification?
When an observer associates themselves with a role model and wants to be like the role model
46
What is the process when we imitate the behaviour of role models?
Modelling
47
What is modelling?
From the observers perspective, modelling is imitating the behaviour of a role model and from the role models perspective, modelling is the precise demonstration of a specific behaviour that may be imitated by an observer
48
What are some strengths of social learning theory?
(1) INCLUDES THE IMPORTANCE OF COGNITIVE FACTORS IN LEARNING
- neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate explanation for learning on its own as humans and animals store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about what behaviours are appropriate
(2) EXPLAINS CULTURAL DIFFERENCES IN BEHAVIOUR
- slt can explain cultural differences in behaviour as these principles account for how children learn from other individuals around them and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through particular societies
(3) LESS DETERMINIST THAN THE BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
- reciprocal determinism is emphasised, where we are not merely influenced by our external environment but we also exert and influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform and therefore this element of choice suggests that there is some free will
49
What are some limitations are social learning theory?
(1) OVER-RELIANCE ON EVIDENCE FROM LAB STUDIES
- these ideas were developed on lab studies and these are known to be at higher risk of demand characteristics such as in his Bobo doll study where the purpose is to hit it anyways and therefore this tells us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life
(2) UNDERESTIMATES THE INFLUENCE OF BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
- there is little reference to the impact of biological factors in social learning and in the Bobo doll study boys were more aggressive than girls and this could be explained by hormonal factors such as different levels in testosterone and this factor is not accounted for in SLT
50
What is the cognitive approach?
The term cognitive means mental processes so this approach is focused in how our mental processes affect behaviour
51
What are the assumptions of the cognitive approach?
(1) argues that internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically
(2) investigates the areas neglected by behaviourism such as memory, perception and thinking
(3) internal mental processes are private and therefore cannot be observed
(4) study mental processes indirectly by making inferences
52
What are internal mental processes?
Private operations of the mind such as perception and attention that mediate between stimulus and response
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What is inference?
The process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about the way mental processes operate in the basis of observed behaviour
54
What is used to help understand internal mental processes?
Theoretical and computer models
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What is one important theoretical model?
The information processing approach
56
What is the information processing approach?
This suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval
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What is the informational processing approach based on?
The way that computers function
58
What real-life application will these models have?
Proved useful in the development of artificial intelligence
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What can cognitive processing be affected by?
Schema - a persons beliefs or expectations
60
What are schema?
A mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing and they are developed from experience
61
What schema are babies born with and what are their functions?
Simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
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What happens to our schema when we get older?
Our schema become more detailed and sophisticated
63
What do our schema enable us to do?
Process lots of information quickly and this provides a mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
64
How does our schema lead to perceptual errors?
Schema may distort our interpretations of sensory information which can lead to perceptual errors
65
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
66
What have advances in scanning lead to?
Scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes (Tulving’s research into long-term memory)
Proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders
67
What are some strengths of the cognitive approach?
(1) SCIENTIFIC AND OBJECTIVE METHODS
- employs highly controlled and rigorous methods would enables to inference of cognitive processes such as the use of lab experiments and therefore psychology has established a credible scientific basis
(2) REAL-LIFE APPLICATION
- this is one of the more dominant approaches which has made an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence and this may revolutionise the way we live
(3) LESS DETERMINIST THAN OTHER APPROACHES
- founded in soft determinism as states that we are free to think before responding to a stimulus and this is more reasonable than hard determinism
68
What are some limitations of the cognitive approach?
(1) MACHINE REDUCTIONISM
- the computer analogy has been criticised by many as such machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotions and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information
(2) LIMITED APPLICATION TO EVERYDAY LIFE
- as we are only able to infer cognitive processes, cognitive psychology suffers from being too abstract and theoretical in nature and experimental studies of these processes use artificial materials that may not represent everyday situations and therefore may lack external validity
69
What is the biological approach?
A perspective that emphasises the importance of physical processes in the body such as genetic inheritance and neural function
70
What are the assumptions of the biological approach?
(1) everything psychological is at first biological
(2) we must look at biological structures and processes within the body such as genes and the nervous system
(3) an understanding of brain structure and function can explain our thoughts and behaviour
(4) the mind lives in the brain meaning that cognitive processes have a physical basis
(5) sees mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical brain
71
What are genes?
They make up chromosomes and consist of DNA which codes the physical features of an organism and these genes are transmitted from parents to offspring
72
What is a biological structure?
An arrangement or organisation of parts to form an organ, system or living thing
73
What is neurochemistry?
Relating to chemicals in the brain that regulate psychological functioning
74
What research method has been used to research whether certain traits are hereditary?
Twin studies
75
What have twin studies been used to show hereditary genes?
Twin studies are used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing the concordance rates between pairs of twins
76
What have twin studies found ?
Identical twins have higher concordance rates than non-identical twins and this would suggest a genetic basis and this is because identical twins share 100% of their genes whereas non-identical twin share 50%
77
What is a genotype?
The particular set of genes that a person possesses
| actual genetic make up
78
What is a phenotype?
The characteristics of an individual determined by both genes and the environment
(the way the genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics)
79
What is evolution?
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
80
What are the strengths of the biological approach?
(1) SCIENTIFIC METHODS
- this approach uses a range of precise and highly scientific methods and these include scanning techniques and twin studies which allows researchers to accurately measure biological and neural processes and therefore this approach is based on reliable data
(2) REAL-LIFE APPLICATION
- increased understanding of bio chemicals has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that treat serious mental illnesses and this is a strength as sufferers are able to manage their condition and live relatively normal lives
81
What are the limitations of the biological approach?
(1) CAUSAL CONCLUSIONS
- offers explanations for mental illness in terms of the action of neurotransmitters in the brain and evidence for this comes from studies that show a particular drugs reduces symptoms of a mental disorder and therefore it is assumed that the neurochemical in the drug causes the disorder, this is a limitation as the approach claims to have discovered causes where only an association exists
(2) DETERMINIST VIEW OF BEHAVIOUR
- determinist in the sense that it sees behaviour as governed by internal, biological causes which we have no control over and this has implications for the legal system and wider society as offenders are seen as legally and morally responsible for their actions and therefore a criminal gene may complicate this principle
(3) CANNOT SEPARATE NATURE AND NURTURE
- this approach argues that similarities in the way twins look are down to genetics but they are also surrounded by the same environment which means the findings could easily be interpreted as supporting nurture rather than nature
82
What is the psychodynamic approach?
A perspective that describes the different forces, most of which are unconscious, that operate in the mind and direct human behaviour and experience
83
What is the unconscious?
The part of the mind that we are unaware of but which continues to direct much of our behaviour
84
Who proposed the psychodynamic approach?
Sigmund Freud
85
How does Freud describe the mind?
Like an iceberg
86
What is the majority of our mind made up of according to Freud?
The unconscious
87
What does the unconscious mind store?
(1) biological drives and instincts
| (2) threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed
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How can repressed memories be accessed?
(1) through dreams
| (2) through slips of the tongue
89
What is under the surface of our conscious mind?
Our preconscious mind
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What is the preconscious mind?
It contains thoughts and memories which are not currently in our conscious awareness but we can access if desired
91
How did Freud describe personality?
As tripartite
92
What are the three parts of the personality according to Freud?
(1) the id
(2) the ego
(3) the superego
93
What is the id?
This is the primitive part of our personality and it operates on the pleasure principle - it is made up of selfish aggressive instincts that demand immediate gratification
94
What is the ego?
The ego works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the id and the superego
95
What is the superego?
This is formed at the end of the phallic stage and it is the moralistic part (based on the morality principle) of our personality which represents the ideal self (how we ought to be)
96
What are defence mechanisms?
They are unconscious strategies that the ego uses to manage to conflict between the id and the superego
97
What are 3 defence mechanisms?
(1) repression
(2) denial
(3) displacement
98
What is repression?
Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind
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What is denial?
Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality
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What is displacement?
Transferring feelings from the true source of distressing emotion onto a substitute target
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What are the psychosexual stages?
Five developmental stages that all children pass through and at each stage there is a different conflict, the outcome of which determines future development
102
What are the 5 psychosexual stages?
(1) oral stage
(2) anal stage
(3) phallic stage
(4) latency stage
(5) genital stage
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What is the focus in the oral stage?
The focus of pleasure is the mouth, and the mothers breast is the object of desire
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What is the consequence of an unresolved conflict in the oral stage?
Oral fixations e.g. smoking, biting nails, sarcastic and critical
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What is the focus of the anal stage?
The focus of pleasure is the anus and the child gains pleasure from withholding and expelling faeces
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What are the two consequences of an unresolved conflict in the anal stage?
(1) anal retentive - perfectionist and obsessive
| (2) anal expulsive - thoughtless and messy
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What is the focus in the phallic stage?
The focus of pleasure is the genital area (Oedipus and Electra complex)
108
What is the consequence of unresolved conflict in the phallic stage?
Phallic personality - narcissistic, reckless and possibly homosexual
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What happens in the latency stage?
Earlier conflicts are repressed
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What happens during the genital stage?
Sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
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What are the consequences of unresolved conflict during the genital stage?
Difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
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What are the strengths of the psychodynamic approach?
(1) EXPLANATORY POWER
- this approach has been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality development, abnormal behaviour, moral development and gender. It also draws attention to the connection between experiences in childhood and later development
(2) PRACTICAL APPLICATION
- has led to a new form of therapy called psychoanalysis which employs a range of techniques designed to access the unconscious. However, this has been criticised as inappropriate and even harmful for people suffering from serious mental disorders
113
What are the limitations of the psychodynamic approach?
(1) USE OF CASE STUDIES
- this theory is based off of case studies such as Little Hans and although they provide detailed and carefully recorded observations, they are unable to make universal claims because of there small sample size and therefore findings are difficult to generalise, Freud’s methods also lack scientific rigour
(2) UNTESTABLE CONCEPTS
- Popper found that this approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification and therefore it is not open to empirical testing and therefore the psychodynamic theory is a pseudoscience and not a real science
(3) PSYCHIC DETERMINISM
- explains that behaviour and even accidents are determines by unconscious conflicts that are rooted in childhood and therefore any free will we think we may have is an illusion
114
What is the humanistic approach?
An approach to understanding behaviour that emphasises the importance of subjective experience and each persons capacity for self-determinism
115
What is free will?
The notion that humans can make choices and are not determined by biological or external forces
116
Who are two famous humanistic psychologists?
Rogers and Maslow
117
What is self-actualisation?
The desire to grow psychologically and fulfil ones full potential and becoming what you are capable of
118
What is the hierarchy of needs?
A five-levelled hierarchical sequence in which basic needs must be satisfied before higher psychological needs can be achieved
119
What are the 5 levels of Maslow’s hierarchy?
(1) physiological needs
(2) safety and security
(3) love and belongingness
(4) self-esteem
(5) self-actualisation
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What is the self?
The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and ‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what i can do’
121
According to Rogers how is personal growth achieved?
When the individuals concept of the self has congruence to their ideal self (the person they want to be)
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What is congruence?
The aim of Rogerian therapy; when the self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord or match
123
What happens when too big of a gap exists between the two selves?
The person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to negative feelings of self-worth
124
What was the name of the therapy designed by Rogers?
Client-centred therapy
125
What is the aim of client-centred therapy?
To reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self to help people cope with the problems of everyday living
126
According to Rogers what is the causes of worthlessness and low self-esteem?
They are rooted from childhood and can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (lack of unconditional love) from parents
127
What is conditions of worth?
When a parents places limits or boundaries on their love for their children
128
What are some strengths of the humanistic approach?
(1) NOT REDUCTIONIST
- this approach is not reductionist like all the other approaches and therefore it takes a holistic approach, which is the idea that subjective experience can only be understood by considering the whole person and therefore this approach may have more validity
(2) POSITIVE APPROACH
- they promote a positive image of the human condition unlike Freud who described humans as slaves to their past and therefore this approach offers a refreshing and optimistic alternative that sees humans in control of their lives
129
What are some limitations of the humanistic approach?
(1) LIMITED APPLICATION
- it has little real-world application and therefore is have limited impact within the discipline of psychology as a whole and this may be due to the fact that this approach lacks a sound evidence-base and it is not a comprehensive theory, but rather a set of abstract concepts
(2) UNTESTABLE CONCEPTS
- include vague ideas that are too abstract and difficult to test and concepts like self-actualisation may prove problematic to assess under experimental conditions, therefore this approach lacks empirical evidence and is therefore not scientific
(3) CULTURAL BIAS
- many ideas that are central to this approach such as personal growth are more associated with individualist cultures, however collectivist cultures place an emphasis on the group and therefore personal growth is not something they value
