Paper 1: Hazardous Earth - Topic 1

Question 1

Where on the Earth’s surface receives the most radiation?

Answer 1

The earth is largely spherical so more radiation is recieved at the Equator, the hottest part of the earth whereas the poles are the coldest part. At the Equator, the sun’s rays are concentrated over a small area and strike at a right angle, meanwhile at the poles they reach the surface at a lower angle so the same radiation has to heat up a larger surface area. Also near the poles the radiation has had to pass through ‘more’ atmosphere and travel a greater distance so energy has been absorbed, meanwhile at the equator this is less.

Question 2

What is meant by high and low pressure and why does this variation occur?

Answer 2

As heat rises, the lower atmosphere will have fewer particles, meaning less pressure. As the heat transfers, the atmosphere gets warmer and clouds form which is followed by rain falling. This is why rainfall means low pressure because there is less air on the surface, and more air up in the sky.

This is then the opposite for high pressure because when the aie sinks, the heat is transferred from the sky to ground level, meaning there are more particles, meaning more air and higher pressure. The air travels from low to high pressure due to atmospheric weight.

Question 3

How does high and low pressure explain wind direction?

Answer 3

As the air moves up when going from high pressure to low pressure, and goes down when going from low to high pressure. Wind only occurs when air goes from high to low pressure across the Earth’s surface. However, the intended path that the air intends to take is not always followed due to the Coriolis Effect. The Coriolis Effect has an effect on the global circulation system, as the wind is pushed in different directions by the Earth’s rotation. Usually, the air in the North is pushed to it’s right, and the air in the South is pushed towards it’s left. (This is always in the direction of it’s travel so if it is going back towards the equator then this will not look the same from a bird’s eye view).

Question 4

How do atmospheric circulation cells explain transfer heat energy around the world, as well show us where the High and Low Pressure belts are found?

Answer 4

The Atmospheric Circulation Cells distribute heat energy all over the globe. There are three different names of these cells, the: Hadley Cells, Ferrel Cells, and Polar Cells. The heat from the sun changes the air pressure and the air moves from high pressure areas to low pressure areas as surface winds, bringing the heat back to the equator. As a result the cells have high and low pressure belts. At 30° N and S, the cool air sinks, forming cloudless skies and High Pressure belts, but at 0° and 60° N and S, the warm air rises to create Low Pressure belts, meaning clouded ans possibly rainy weather.

Question 5

How do large ocean currents transfer heat around the world?

Answer 5

1) Ocean currents are large scale movements of water that transfer heat energy from warmer to cooler regions
2) Surface currents are caused by winds and help transfer heat way from the Equator, e.g the Gulf Stream brings warm water from the Caribbean and keeps Western Europe warmer than it would otherwise be
3) There are also deep ocean currents driven by differences in water density.
4) When water freezes at the poles, the surrounding water gets saltier, increasing it’s density
5) As it gets denser, it sinks, causing warmer water to flow in at the surface - creating a current
6) This warmer water is cooled and sinks, continuing the cycle
7) This cycle of cooling and sinking moves water in a big loop round the Earth - this is known as the thermohaline circulation.

Question 6

How Does Low Pressure Form?

Answer 6

When air is heated it rises as it is less dense. As it rises it transfers heat to the atmosphere. It cools, condenses and usually clouds and rain occurs.

Because there is ‘less air’ at the surface, it is now ‘low pressure’

Question 7

How Does High Pressure Form?

Answer 7

When air cools it becomes more dense. It falls and as it does transfers heat to the ground. It warms as it falls leaving clear skies and little/no rainfall.

Because there is ‘more air’ at the surface, it is now ‘high pressure’

Question 8

What order are which cell circulation systems around the world in, and where do the belts of low and high pressure lie?

Answer 8

The order is: (from equator outwards in North and South)

• Hadley Cell
• Ferrel Cell
• Polar Cell

Belts of Low Pressure are found:

• At 0°
• At 60° North
• At 60° South

Belts of High Pressure are found:

• At 30° North
• At 30° South

Question 9

What are the 3 Circulation Systems?

Answer 9

• Hadley Cell
• Ferrel Cell
• Polar Cell

Question 10

What does the Hadley Cell do?

Answer 10

The air separates and starts to move both north and south towards the poles.

When it reaches about 30° north and south, the air cools and sinks towards the ground forming the subtropical high-pressure zone.

As the air sinks, it becomes warmer and drier. This creates an area of little cloud and low rainfall, where deserts are found.

The Hadley cell is then complete. The air completes the cycle and flows back towards the equator as the trade winds.

In the northern hemisphere, the winds flow to the right and are called northeast trade winds. In the southern hemisphere the winds flow to the left and are called the southeast trade winds. This is down to the Coriolis force and friction.

(Goes Anti-Clockwise in the North, and Clockwise in the South, taking air from the Equator, up to around 30° North and South)

Question 11

What does the Ferrel Cell Do?

Answer 11

Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles, forming the warm south-westerly winds in the northern hemisphere and north-westerly winds in the southern hemisphere.

These winds pick up moisture as they travel over the oceans. At around 60 degrees N and 60 degrees S, they meet cold air, which has drifted from the poles.

The warmer air from the tropics is lighter than the dense, cold polar air and so it rises as the two air masses meet.

This uplift of air causes low pressure at the surface and the unstable weather conditions that are associated with the mid-latitude depressions. Much of our wet and windy weather in the UK is determined by this.

(Travels the opposite way than the Hadley Cell, meaning it goes Clockwise in the North and Anti-Clockwise in the South. It takes air from 30° - 60°)

Question 12

What does the Polar Cell Do?

Answer 12

At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the ground forming high pressure, this known as the Polar high. It then flows towards the lower latitudes. At about 60 degrees N and S, the cold polar air mixes with warmer tropical air and rises upwards, creating a zone of low pressure called the subpolar low. The boundary between the warm and cold air is called the polar front. It accounts for a great deal of the unstable weather experienced in these latitudes.

(This moves air in the same rotation as the Hadley Cell, going Anti-Clockwise in the North, and Clockwise in the South, taking air from the 60°, up to the Poles North and South).

Question 13

What is Climate Change?

Answer 13

Climate change refers to how the average climatic conditions of the planet vary over time. The planet history is divided into periods and the climate during the Quaternary period (the last 2.6 million years) has changed many times. Global temperatures have shifted between cold glacial periods that last for around 100,000 years and warmer interglacial periods that usually last for around 10,000 years. The last glacial period ended around 15,000 years ago, since then the climate has been warming.

Question 14

What are the Natural Causes of Climate Change?

Answer 14

• Orbital Changes (Eccentricity, Tilt/Obliquity and Precession (Wobble)
• Asteroid Collisions
• Volcanic Activity
• Solar Output Variation

Question 15

What is Eccentricity (Stretch)?

Answer 15

Eccentricity is how the orbit of the Earth changes shape over long periods of time, approximately every 100,000 years. This means that sometimes the Earth’s orbit around the Sun is more circular, making us slightly warmer (interglacial), and sometimes the orbit becomes more elliptical, making the Earth slightly cooler (glacial).

Question 16

What is Obliquity/Tilt?

Answer 16

Obliquity/Tilt is how the Earth does not sit with the North and South Poles exactly at the top and bottom of the planet. In fact, the Earth is tilted so that the poles are actually rotated approximately 23° from a vertical position. This creates our seasons north and south of the Equator. However, over a period of approximately 40,000 years, the angle of tilt changes. This means that sometimes the Earth is tilted further away the Sun, which makes the difference in the seasons more pronounced (summers are warmer and winters are colder). When it is tilted closer to the Sun, the difference in the seasons Is less.

Question 17

How do Asteroid Collisions affect Climate Change events?

Answer 17

Large cosmic material, such as asteroids and comets, can impact the Earth’s surface.This can eject large volumes of dust into the atmosphere, partially blocking solar radiation and leading to glacial periods. Climate change that is caused by surface impact can have dramatic effects on life. One such impact approximately 65 million years ago is considered to be responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs. It is not the force of the Impact that is thought to have wiped them out however, but rather the massive climate change that was created by the impact.

Question 18

How does Volcanic Activity affect Climate Change events?

Answer 18

Big volcanic eruptions can change the Earth’s climate. Small eruptions have no effect - the eruption needs to be very large and explosive. Volcanic eruptions produce Ash and Sulphur dioxide gas.

If the ash and gas rise high enough, they will be spread around the Earth in the stratosphere by high-level winds. The blanket of ash and gas will stop some sunlight reaching the Earth’s surface. Instead, the sunlight is reflected off the ash and gas, back into space. This cools the planet and lowers the average temperature.

An example is:
(In 1991, Mount Pinatubo In the Philippines erupted, releasing 17 million tonnes of sulphur dioxide. This was enough to reduce global sunlight by 10%, cooling the planet by 0.5°C for about )

Question 19

How do Variations in Solar Outputs affect Climate Change events?

Answer 19

Over 2000 years ago Chinese astronomers started to record sunspots. These are black areas on the sun’s surface (see Figure 1). Sometimes the sun has many spots, and other times they disappear. They tell us that the sun is more active than usual. Lots of spots mean more solar energy being fired out from the sun towards Earth.

Cooler periods, such as the Little Ice Age, and warmer periods, such as the Medieval Warm Period, may have been caused by changes in sunspot activity. Some people think that, on average, there were more volcanic eruptions during the Little Ice Age,and that this added to the cooling. However, climate change on timescales of a few hundred years, and 1- 2°C, cannot be explained by volcanoes - but it might be explained by sunspot cycles.

Question 20

What is Precession (Wobble)?

Answer 20

As the Earth rotates on it’s axis(which is, of course, what gives us day and night), it does not do so perfectly. In fact, the Earth ‘wobbles’ on its axis, in a similar way to a spinning-top as it slows down.As this happens, the direction the axis is facing changes. This affects our seasons and creates either greater or smaller differences between summer and winter. This occurs over a period of approximately 24,000 years.

Question 21

Evidences for Natural Climate Change:

Answer 21

• Tree Rings
• Ice Cores
• Historical Evidence

Question 22

What can Tree Rings tell us?

Answer 22

• Each ring shows a year of growth. Changes in shape and size of tree rings can show conditions during that year.
• Warmer and wetter weather can show greater growth as the tree ring is bigger, cooler or drier weather can mean rings are thinner.
• On some trees there can be scarring from a forest fire, or where beetles and other insects have marked it
• Bigger rings mean rainy and warm seasons, while smaller rings mean cold and dry seasons.

Question 23

What can Ice Cores tell us?

Answer 23

• The ice contains bubbles of the air from each year. Scientists analyse
  the bubbles in each layer to see how much CO2 they contain. Scientists can also learn about the temperatures for each year by measuring relative amounts of different types of oxygen atoms in the water.

-Inside of the actual drilled piece of ice itself, you will find bubbles of Oxygen atoms and Carbon Dioxide in the atmosphere. Also, you can get a measure Pollution and Volcanic Ash over the years too.

Question 24

What can Historical Evidence tell us?

Answer 24

• Old photos, drawings, written records, diaries and the records of dates at regular intervals e.g. the harvests, the arrival of migrating birds and tree blossom.
• These sources are often not very accurate because they were not intended to record climate. However they can still give us some evidence of recent climate trends.
• Between about 1550 and 1850 the UK experienced a ‘Little Ice Age’. Temperatures were sometimes low enough that the River Thames froze. The ice was thick enough for people to walk over the frozen river and even hold a fair. Great Frost of 1683–84, the worst frost recorded in England the Thames was completely frozen for two months, with the ice reaching a thickness of 28 cm in London.

Question 25

How does the Natural Greenhouse Effect help us?

Answer 25

The Natural Greenhouse Effect was a completely natural effect before humans, and stops the Earth from being a frozen wasteland (CO2 is the most abundant greenhouse gas).

Question 26

The 4 Factors contributing to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect:

Answer 26

- Agriculture - Energy - Transport - Industry

Question 27

How does Agriculture contribute to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

Answer 27

Trees absorb and then store Carbon Dioxide, meaning they act as storage for the most emitted greenhouse gas. However, population growth and demand for food has led to deforestation and clearing for cattle farming and rice paddies. Deforestation stops the absorption of CO2 in the atmosphere. Furthermore, these human activities produce methane which has 21 times more power than CO2. These powerful greenhouse gases enhance the greenhouse effect and cause more global warming, not to mention the 250% increase in Methane in the atmosphere since 1850.

Question 28

How does Energy contribute to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

Answer 28

Energy sources require the burning of fossil fuels to power them. The main problem with this is that CO2 is produced when you burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, gas and wood in power stations on such a scale. The rate that these fossil fuels are being burned at is mainly down to demand of electricity. This is made worse by the increasing population and the advancement of new technologies also, which is backed up by the 30% increase of CO2 in the atmosphere since 1850. This shows how the burning of greenhouse gases and increase in CO2 affect Climate Change

Question 29

How does Transport contribute to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

Answer 29

Transport is having a negative affect on Climate Change, as most of it's fuel involves greenhouse gas emissions. Nowadays, new models of transport are becoming available, but can be just as inefficient in terms of fuel as others. Jet aircrafts, cars, and lorries are the most common contributors, with all of these things becoming more affordable as time progresses, which isn't helped by even more congestion on the roads, making things worse. This may be explained by the 16% increase of Nitrous Oxide in the atmosphere since 1850, explaining why this has an increasing negative impact on the climate.

Question 30

How does Industry contribute to the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect?

Answer 30

Industrial processes are also enhancing the greenhouse effect as it produces CO2 and uses Halocarbons, which are 3,000 times more powerful than Carbon Dioxide ( taking up 1% of the atmosphere). The source of this is cements, solvents and pieces of cooling equipment, which is now in demand more than ever, with people having even more disposable income on their hands to spend on things exactly like the industry. This is all backed up by the fact that there has been an increase in the Halocarbons in the atmosphere since 1850. If this all carries on, the Industry and it's processes will result in the climate warming even more.

Question 31

What Evidence is there to suggest Human Activity is causing Climate Change? (Evidence + Why)

Answer 31

Evidence 1: Global average temperature - The ten hottest years on record have occurred since 1998, with 2005, 2010 and 2014 as the hottest. - Including 2013, 9 out of the 10 warmest years on record have occurred in the 21st century. Only one year during the 20th century – 1998, was warmer than 2013. - Measurements of average global atmospheric temperature show a steep rise from around the 1950s to the present. Although global temperature have risen before, it is unusual for the increase to be so rapid. Evidence 2: Arctic sea ice - By 2012, floating sea ice in the Arctic had shrunk to less than half the amount in 1979. - Over 90% of the world’s valley glaciers are shrinking. - The extent of Arctic sea ice has decreased. Every year sea ice melts in spring and reaches its lowest extent in September. Warmer global temperatures have meant more ice has melted. The sharp decline in the extent of the sea ice cannot be explained by natural cycles in the Arctic. Evidence 3: Sea level change - The extent of Arctic sea ice has decreased. Every year sea ice melts in spring and reaches its lowest extent in September. Warmer global temperatures have meant more ice has melted. The sharp decline in the extent of the sea ice cannot be explained by natural cycles in the Arctic. - Sea levels rose by 210mm from 1870 to 2010. They are rising because the sea expands as it warms, called thermal expansion. In future, if glaciers and ice sheets continue to melt, sea levels could rise significantly.

Question 32

What is Eustatic Sea Level Rise and Thermal Expansion

Answer 32

Eustatic Sea Level Rise: Warmer temperatures are causing Glaciers to shrink ond ice sheets to melt. The melting of ice on land, especially from the Greenland and Antarctic Ice sheets, means that water stored on land as ice returns to the oceans. This causes sea levels to rise. Thermal Expansion: Water in the oceans expands as it gets warmer - this is called thermal expansion. Scientists think this accounts for about half of the measured rise in sea levels.

Question 33

Possible Consequences of Climate Change and what they could result in:

Answer 33

Climate Change: Impacts Farming - Some farmers are finding crop yields to be smaller due to rising temperatures. However, in higher latitudes, some are able to grow more Impacts Nutrition - Lower crop yields increase malnutrition, ill health and death from starvation. (Especially in lower Latitudes) Could Mean More Deaths - Deaths due to heat are currently on the rise, while deaths due to cold have decreased Could Lead To More Extreme Weather - Global Warming, results in Climate Change makes the weather more extreme, meaning money will be spent on predicting extreme weather and reducing the impacts and rebuilding what got damaged Could Mean More Money Spent On Flood Defences - Low-lying coastal areas could be lost due to rising sea levels and ever increasing flooding. This could lead to migration and overcrowding in other areas

Question 34

Why are projections for sea-level rise difficult to make?

Answer 34

They are difficult to make because: - Prevailing winds and currents will have higher levels. Some areas of land are sinking and are densely populated, adding to the risk - Greenland would add 7 meters to sea levels. Antarctica would add 13 meters, if their ice sheets were to melt - Will Greenhouse gases continue to rise, or will their emissions reduce? If so, when will emissions peak (affect the rate of ice melted, and how much and e.c.t)

Question 35

What are these definitions: - Coriolis Force - Eye - Seasonal Distribution - Source Area - Track

Answer 35

Coriolis force – a strong force created by the earths rotation. Eye – the centre of a tropical cyclone Seasonal distribution – how something such as tropical cyclones occur at different times of the year. Source area – the region in which a tropical storm first forms Track – the path followed by a tropical storm

Question 36

How do Tropical Cyclones form?

Answer 36

Stage 1- Warm air currents rise (number 1 in Figure 3) from the ocean. As the warm air rises, more air rushes in to replace it; then it too rises, drawn by the draught above. Stage 2- Updraughts of air contain huge volumes of water vapour from the oceans, which condense to produce cumulonimbus clouds. Condensation releases heat energy stored in water vapour, which powers the cyclone further. Stage 3- Coriolis force causes rising current so far to spiral around the centre of the tropical cyclone, so it resembles a whirling cylinder. It rises and cools, and some of it descends to form the clear, cloudless, still, eye of the storm. Stage 4- As the tropical cyclone tracks away from its source, it is fed new heat and moisture from the oceans, enlarging as it does so. Stage 5- Once it reaches a landmass, it loses its energy source from the ocean. Air pressure rises as temperature falls, winds drop, rainfall decreases, and it decays to become a mere storm.

Question 37

Where do Tropical Cyclones usually form?

Answer 37

Tropical cyclones source areas are in the tropics, a few degrees north and south of the Equator: - This is where the Coriolis effect adds to rotation. - Most likely to occur in ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) - areas of permanently low pressure generated by global circulation within the Hadley Cells. - It will be where the waters are around 26.5°C in these waters (- Develop around June to September/October in the Northern Hemisphere -Develop mid-January to March in the Southern Hemisphere in the Southern Hemisphere)

Question 38

What are the Hazards of Tropical Cyclones?

Answer 38

High Winds - Tropical winds over 250km per hour at times Intense Rainfall - The tropical cyclones take up large amounts of water from the ocean, which will result in masses of intense rain Storm Surges - The cyclone creates big areas of low pressure, which can allo the sea level to rise, with large amounts of water being thrown up and out of bodies of water Coastal Flooding - Intense rain and storm surges can flood the coasts, while large waves are thrown to the shore Landslides - Landslides can occur when the ground takes up a lot of water, making it weak and unstable enough for it to break off and fall in small and large amounts.

Question 39

Why is air pressure important in how strong a tropical cyclone becomes?

Answer 39

Air pressure is very important in how strong a tropical cyclone can become, as tropical cyclones hold a much lower air pressure than the air surrounding them (the average normal air pressure is 1013mb (millibars)). On the other hand, the 'eye' of the storm consists of more calm, clear and descending dense air. Overall, the higher difference or air pressure, the more powerful it will be. An example of the lowest pressures recorded are 887mb, found in Typhoon Ida in the Philippines in 1958 (winds reached up to 300km/h)

Question 40

What will impact the intensity of a tropical cyclone?

Answer 40

The intensity of a tropical cyclone can be affected by a few things and ways (which can make it stringer or weaker depending). One reason is that warmer water will fuel the tropical cyclone more, increasing it's intensity. A second reason is due to dissipation (losing energy), because when it reaches land, it's fuel supply will stop. It can also lose it's energy by running into colder waters, or if another weather system blows it the other way, or destroys it.

Question 41

How do Tropical Cyclones Dissipate?

Answer 41

Tropical Cyclones can dissipate (lose energy) when it reaches land meaning it's water supply is cut off, when it moves to areas of cold water meaning there is no moist air and warm water to fuel it, or when it runs into other weather systems with winds blowing the opposite way, resulting in it essentially falling apart.

Question 42

What Social and Environmental Impacts do High Winds have?

Answer 42

Social Impacts: - Homelessness and buildings damaged, injuries/death by flying debris - Power Cables can get damaged. - The winds could result in people being blown over and falling Environmental Impacts: - Trees uprooted and blown over - The birds and animals living and using these uprooted trees will be affected as their habitats will be destroyed

Question 43

What Social and Environmental Impacts does Intense Rainfall have?

Answer 43

Social Impacts: -The rainfall can lead to flooding, meaning property can get damaged, while people can get injured, knocked over and could even drown people Environmental Impacts: -The rainfall can mean flooding, which could result in contaminated waters, and get leached

Question 44

What Social and Environmental Impacts do Storm Surges have?

Answer 44

Social Impacts: -People can get impacted bu this, as it could again flood villages, places and people, especially if there is no high ground, protection, or cover Environmental Impacts: -Coastal habitats can get flooded and over-flowed, like other places far inland as well, therefore contaminating farmland, freshwater and lakes

Question 45

What Social and Environmental Impacts does Coastal Flooding have?

Answer 45

Social Impacts: People who live on coastal houses and areas can get overthrown with masses of water, putting people and homes at risk. There will most likely be mass evacuations of these areas. Environmental Impacts: -This can affect the farming and also tourism, as salt water can damage crops, land and e.c.t (some tourists may be worried of other disasters hitting these areas too in future)

Question 46

What Social and Environmental Impacts do Landslides have?

Answer 46

Social Impacts: -Big landslides can result in buildings being knocked down, and for people to even get buried alive in some dangerous situations. Environmental Impacts: -This can cause more river flooding and can dirty and pollute waters, while pathways, trees and farmlands can get buried under rubble and soil.

Question 47

2 Physical/Environmental Factors that might increase an area's vulnerability to Tropical Cyclones:

Answer 47

One physical factor that might increase an area's vulnerability is the formation of the coastline. If the coast provides lots of bodies of water inland, and throughout this coastline, then the cyclone will not lose as much energy, and therefore, keep it's strength as it travels along the coast, putting it at more risk to flooding Another physical factor can be the relief of an area (how high above sea level it is), because low-lying stretches of the land sill mean that storm surges and high winds can affect it more than it would've if it was a raised area. On the other hand, high-relief areas will be more prone to rain, and as a result, landslides too.

Question 48

2 Social Factors that might increase an area's vulnerability to Tropical Cyclones:

Answer 48

A social factor making people more vulnerable to tropical cyclones are where they live, for example, areas of poverty and dense areas will be easily damaged and/or destroyed. This means the after-effects of the cyclone will be more damaging to these people especially, as all they had will be taken away from them and if they are poor with little money, then they won't be able to afford a new home (for example) leaving them more vulnerable to the outdoors, hunger, thirst and poverty in the future. A second social factor that can increase vulnerability of people are that buildings and roads can get blocked up and destroyed, meaning people could get buried under rubble, but can also block ambulances and additional aid from coming in. If most methods of getting help and aid are blocked, then the people in affected area of the cyclone are at a heightened risk, as this can not only stop them from getting to safety, but can also prevent them from getting urgent hospital treatment too, especially if the country/region has poor resources/organisation.

Question 49

Why will areas of low wealth be at increased vulnerability?

Answer 49

Areas of low wealth could be at an increased vulnerability for their longer term futures as many poorer people depend on agriculture which is often very badly affected. This firstly means that they will not be able to sell any crops of yield, meaning their income will be lost, because their fields will be flooded and the cost of repairing the damage will be too much, as they will probably not be covered by insurance, consequently leaving them with no money, income, and food - which are all things that are need for living a safe, health and stable life, and not a vulnerable and exposed one.

Question 50

Preparation Definition:

Answer 50

The Preparation is what can be done before the event to minimise the disruption to people/environment.

Question 51

Response Definition:

Answer 51

The Response are the events afterwards that are put in place to help the recovery as quick as possible and to get life back to normal as quick as possible.

Question 52

Techniques used for Preparation:

Answer 52

- Forecast/Tracking - Warning/Evacuation - Building Design

Question 53

Forecast/Tracking: | Example/Scheme + How does this reduce the impacts of the tropical cyclone?

Answer 53

1) When and where tropical cyclones will hit land can be predicted. 2) Scientists can use weather forecasting end satellite technology to monitor cyclones. Computer models are then used to calculate and predict a path for the cyclone 3) The cyclone's magnitude can be monitored by measuring its wind speeds. (These can be classified into Category using the Saffir-Simpson scale which is based on windspeed) 4) Predicting where end when a tropical cyclone is going to happen gives people time to evacuate and protect their homes and businesses, e.g. by boarding up windows.

Question 54

Warning/Evacuation: | Example/Scheme + How does this reduce the impacts of the tropical cyclone?

Answer 54

1) Warning strategies are used to alert people to a tropical cyclone. An alert will give people enough time to leave their homes and get to a safe place. 2) Governments can plan evacuation routes to get people away from storms quickly. In Florida, evacuation routes are sign-posted all along the coast. 3) Successful evacuations can reduce the number of deaths and injuries. 4) Emergency services can train end prepare for disasters, e.g. by practising rescuing people from flooded areas with helicopters. This reduces the number of people killed.

Question 55

Building Design: | Example/Scheme + How does this reduce the impacts of the tropical cyclone?

Answer 55

1) Defences (e.g. see wells) can be built along the coast to prevent damage from storm surges. Buildings can also be designed to withstand a storm surge, e.g. they can be put on stilts so they're safe from floodwater. 2) This will reduce the number of buildings destroyed, so fewer people will be killed, injured, made homeless and made unemployed.

Question 56

Techniques used for Response:

Answer 56

- Rescue | - Rebuild

Question 57

Rescue: | Example/Scheme + How does this reduce the impacts of the tropical cyclone?

Answer 57

1) Teams of rescue workers will go to area affected and try to provide aid, food, water, equipment and e.c.t. 2) This means people are protected from the aftermath of the cyclone, as it is possible for people to fail in their search for food, drink and medical equipment, but now, the rescue workers can provide this outlet for them.

Question 58

Rebuild: | Example/Scheme + How does this reduce the impacts of the tropical cyclone?

Answer 58

1) The repair and reconstruction of the affected area will need to be good if the area is to make a swift recovery. (Form homes, buildings, transport links, water supply, power supply) 2) This helps to reduce the prolonged damage and helps to restore power and drinking water to the area, which can mean transportation lines and public transport can start up again

Question 59

Category, Place and Date of Hurricane Katrina:

Answer 59

Category: Category 3 at landfall (reached up to Category 5) Place: South-East USA Date: 29th August 2005

Question 60

Category, Place and Date of Cyclone Nargis:

Answer 60

Category: Category 4 Place: Irrawaddy delta, Myanmar Date: 2nd May, 2008

Question 61

Positives and Negatives of Hurricane Katrina Forecasting

Answer 61

Positives: - The USA has a sophisticated monitoring system to predict if and where a hurricane will hit. - The National Hurricane Centre (NHC) in Florida tracks and predicts hurricanes using satellite images end planes that collect weather data on approaching storms. Negatives: -They were not able to tell where the Hurricane would go, or what it would do once it reached land, making it more unpredictable.

Question 62

Positives and Negatives of Hurricane Katrina Warning & Evacuation

Answer 62

Positives: - The NHC issued a hurricane warning on 26th August for Louisiana, Mississippi and Alabama. It continued to track the hurricane, updating the government on where and when it would hit. - Mississippi and Louisiana declared states of emergency and 70-80% of New Orleans residents were evacuated before the hurricane reached land. This reduced the number of people killed because lots of people had left the areas where the hurricane hit. Negatives: - Some evacuation routes got cut off by the sheer amount of traffic due to people trying to leave these areas, resulting in some not getting out in time - This resulted in people dying, which could've been avoided if they left sooner (however, the evacuation scheme saved a lot more lives than ones that were lost)

Question 63

Positives and Negatives of Hurricane Katrina Defences

Answer 63

Positives: - There were flood defence systems, sea wall and e.c.t in place, which mostly done their job of stopping most flooding - There were sufficient warnings issues in advance of these events. Negatives: - The city of New Orleans was very badly damaged - flood defences e.g. embankments) that were supposed to protect the city failed. - This caused widespread flooding (over 80% of the city was underwater). - The Levees of New Orleans had not been maintained and the pumping stations didn't work, meaning clean water was not available.

Question 64

Positives and Negatives of Cyclone Nargis Forecasting

Answer 64

Positives: -They relied on Indian Weather agencies to tell them about any Forecasting to do with cyclones, meaning they had some kind of prediction, but a very ineffective one Negatives: - Myanmar doesn't have a dedioeted monitoring centre for tropical cyclones. - Myanmar doean't have a radar network that can predict the height of storm surges and waves caused by cyclones.

Question 65

Positives and Negatives of Cyclone Nargis Warning & Evacuation

Answer 65

Positives: - Indian weather agencies warned the government of Myanmar that Cyclone Nargis was likely to hit the country 48 hours before it did. - Warnings were issued on the TV and radio Negatives: - Warnings were issued on the TV and radio, but they didn't reach people In poor rural communities. This meant more people were killed because they didn't know what to do or where to evacuate to. - There were no emergency preparation plans, no evacuation plans and the country didn't have an early warning system.

Question 66

Positives and Negatives of Cyclone Nargis Defences

Answer 66

Positives: -There were a few mangroves that were left in place which protected the coast from floods a little Negatives: - Mangrove forests protect the coast from flooding, but loads had been chopped down in the decade before Nargla hit, reducing the natural protection. - Houses were made out of weak materials (wood) - Aid agencies were refused access to Myanmar for a week after the disaster due to the lack of transparency in the Government.

Question 67

What is the Structure/Layers of the Earth?

Answer 67

- Continental Crust - Oceanic Crust - Lithosphere (in Upper Mantle) - Asthenosphere (in Upper Mantle) - Upper Mantle - Lower Mantle - Outer Core - Inner Core

Question 68

``` Continental Lithosphere/Crust (-Definition -Density -Physical State -Composition -Temperature) ```

Answer 68

Definition: Is the thinnest layer we live on. Continental crust is 30-40km thick Density: Slightly less dense than the Oceanic Crust (2.7g/cm^3) Physical State: Solid Composition: Made of Granite Temperature: Air Temperature at the top, to possibly 900°C at the bottom

Question 69

``` Oceanic Lithosphere/Crust (-Definition -Density -Physical State -Composition -Temperature) ```

Answer 69

Definition: is the thinnest layer we live on, the Oceanic Crust is around 5-8km thick Density: Slightly more dense than the Continental Crust at around 3.3g/cm^3 Physical State: The crust is made of solid rock Composition: It is made of Basalt and Basaltic Rick Temperature: It is around air temperature at the top, but can get as hot as 900°C at the bottom.

Question 70

``` Asthenosphere (Top Layer of the Mantle) (-Definition -Density -Physical State -Composition -Temperature) ```

Answer 70

Definition: it is a mobile and moving layer inside of the upper mantle. Density: It has a density of around 3.4 - 4.4g/cm^3 Physical State: It is a partially molten layer Composition: It is made of slightly hardened Peridotite Temperature: The temperature ranges from around 900°C - 1600°C

Question 71

``` Lower Mantle (-Definition -Density -Physical State -Composition -Temperature) ```

Answer 71

Definition: The lower mantle is a more molten and moveable layer than the upper mantle Density: It is around 4.4 - 5.6 g/cm^3 Physical State: It is a solid layer Composition: It is also a molten Peridotite Temperature: The temperature ranges from around 1600°C - 4000°C

Question 72

``` Outer Core (-Definition -Density -Physical State -Composition -Temperature) ```

Answer 72

Definition: The core is a ball of solid (for the inner) and liquid (for the outer) iron and nickel, which gives the earth it's magnetic field Density: It is very dense in the centre, and gets less dense as it gies further out. The outer core is 12.6-13g/cm^3, while the inner core is 9.9-12.2g/cm^3. Physical State: It is a very dense solid in the very centre due to sheer amounts of pressure Composition: It is made up of mostly Iron and some Nickel Temperature: The temperature ranges from around 4400°C - 6000°C

Question 73

How Convection Currents cause Plate Movement?

Answer 73

Convection currents mean that the molten rock in the asthenosphere is moving around in a viscous kind of liquid. The warm molten lava will rise when it is heated at the warmer bottom, and then cool and fall when it gets to the less heated top. This means the lava is constantly moving in a circuit, and therefore moves the tectonic plates that rest on them.

Question 74

What is Radioactive Decay and Residual Heat?

Answer 74

Radioactive decay comes from the Earth's very core, made up of mostly iron and some nickel. Some elements are naturally unstable and radioactive, meaning atoms of these elements release these particles from their nuclei and give of heat, which is radioactive decay. The residual is the leftover heat from this reaction.

Question 75

How Do Plumes Break Through Crust?

Answer 75

Plumes are the parts of convection cells where heat moves towards the surface in a kind of separate bubble of it's own, which is basically a concentrated zone of heat. In a plume, the mantle is less dense, while bringing magma to the surface, which then breaks through the crust and comes out on the crust as lava.

Question 76

``` Convergent (Oceanic and Continental) Plates (-Examples of plates -Features Produced -Example Country Area -Description) ```

Answer 76

Examples Of Plates: - South American Plate and Nazca Plate - Pacific Plate and Eurasian Plate Features Produced: - Fold Mountains - Volcanoes - Ocean Trenches Example Country Area: - Atacama Trench (Peru-Chile trench) - Mountain Ranges in Peru - The Andes (South America) Description: Where Oceanic and Continental Plates meet, and the Oceanic Crust subducts due to it's higher density, with the Continental one folding over the top, creating Trenches, Volcanic Arches and Fold Mountain

Question 77

``` Convergent (continental and continental) plates (-Examples of plates -Features Produced -Example Country Area -Description) ```

Answer 77

Examples Of Plates: - Indo-Australian Plate and Eurasian Plate - Indian and Eurasian Plate Features Produced: - Fold Mountains - Volcanoes - Earthquakes Example Country Area: - The Himalayas in Nepal (Indian Eurasian Plate) - Earthquakes in Nepal Description: The 2 Continental Crusts come together, and force each other upwards, creating a fold mountain, and/or a volcano (their movement can also cause Earthquakes)

Question 78

``` Divergent Plate (-Examples of plates -Features Produced -Example Country Area -Description) ```

Answer 78

Examples Of Plates: - South American Plate and African Plate - North American Plate and Eurasian Plate - Pacific Plate and Nazca Plate Features Produced: - Sea Floor spreading - Shield Volcanoes - Ridges/Trenches - Sea Mounts Example Country Area: - The Mid-Atlantic Ridge (North American and Eurasian) - The Mariana Trench (Pacific and Eurasian) Description: The two plates move apart, meaning the magma is exposed to the atmosphere, and the it solidifies to create new land on the sea floor, along with a Shield Volcano, or could just leave a Trench or a Ridge in it's place instead.

Question 79

``` Conservative Plates (-Examples of plates -Features Produced -Example Country Area -Description) ```

Answer 79

Examples Of Plates: - North American Plate and Pacific Plate - African Plate and Eurasian Plate Features Produced: - Faults - Earthquakes - Tsunamis Example Country Area: - The San Andreas Fault in California (North America and Pacific Plate) - Earthquakes between Eurasian Plate and African Plate Description: Where two plates rub up the sides of each other. These plates can be going the same direction at different angles and speeds before becoming stuck; or could be travelling two opposite ways at different speeds before becoming stuck, creating Earthquakes/Tsunamis when the pressure is released, along with a large fault line.

Question 80

What things can be created as a result of an erupting volcano?

Answer 80

Magma Chamber - The source of molten rock Volcanic Bombs - Airborne material from a volcanic eruption Parasitic Cone - A secondary vent formed in the state of the mountain Lahar - A destructive mudslide Pyroclastic Flow - A flood of gas, dust and ash down the side of a volcano Lava Flow - The flow of lava Ash - Ash clouds come out of the volcano after an eruption Acid Rain - Only small amounts of acid rains in weak acidity

Question 81

What are Composite Volcanoes?

Answer 81

A Composite Volcano is composed over a long period of time, after several different eruptions where the lava and ash cools and forms multiple layers over time. These volcanoes are tall, steep-sided cones made of up these layers of molten rock and ash. The lava in this volcano is Andesitic lava (high silica content) making it viscous, meaning there are infrequent, but violent eruptions, and can include lava bomb and pyroclastic flows.

Question 82

What are Shield Volcanoes?

Answer 82

Shield Volcanoes are low-lying and gently sloping domes with a wide base. Lava commonly erupts from fissures in the volcano as well as the crater, but these are non-violent. This is formed by eruptions of basaltic (low silica content) lava. This lava flows long distances before cooling down, because of it's low viscosity.

Question 83

What are Hotspot Volcanoes?

Answer 83

Small, long lasting regions exist in the Earth called mantle plumes (superheated rock). This plume is constant source of heat, making a hot-spot. This plume melts through the asthenosphere and the lithosphere, before the magma erupts onto the sea floor to make a sea mount, with continued eruptions allowing it to grow to eventually form an island volcano. But as the tectonic plate moves, the newly formed island is carried beyond the hotspot, cutting it off from the magma supply, ending the volcanic activity in that area. This process repeats and continues to form other islands as the plates move again and again. (A mantle plume stays in a fixed position below the earth's surface, while the tectonic plates move).

Question 84

What is a Tsunami?

Answer 84

A Tsunami is a series of ocean waves, usually caused by volcanic or earthquake activity under the ocean, which can eventually crash onto shorelines. These can reach up to and over 50 meters tall sometimes!

Question 85

How are Tsunamis formed? (via Destructive Boundary)

Answer 85

1. The mantle keeps the plates moving, as the convection currents below direct these plates towards each other 2. These plates will eventually meet, and then start pushing up against each other; building up more pressure the longer this goes on for 3. Eventually, there is be so much pressure built up, that one plate will slip over the other, meaning a huge amount if energy is released, which goes into the water and caused a huge upward wave, followed by a few more shockwaves afterwards. 4. If the huge Tsunami waves travel towards shallower waters, nearer the coastlines, the waves actually begin to slow down, but in doing this, more energy is actually created, resulting in energy gain and an increase in height until it hits the shores (If a Tsunami has a deeper focus, there is more water displacement, therefore, a larger Tsunami will form.)

Question 86

Why Impacts and Responses differ between Developing and Developed Countries?

Answer 86

Impacts and Responses will differ between developing and developed countries for many reasons including the fact that more developed countries will have more developed forecasting, tracking and evacuation procedures, due to the fact that they have a more organised society and economy, meaning they can organise and afford these things; while developing countries will not have this in such abundance, as they will have less wealth and technology, along with lower levels of organisation.

Question 87

``` Japan Tohoku Earthquake (-Time/Date -Magnitude -Place -Focus -Epicentre) ```

Answer 87

Time/Date: 2:47pm 11th March 2011 Magnitude: Magnitude 9 Earthquake Place: North-East Japan, Pacific Plate subducted under Eurasian Plate at the Japanese Trench, triggering a Tsunami Focus: Focus around 30km below the seabed Epicentre: Epicentre 130km East of Sendai the coast

Question 88

``` Haiti Earthquake (-Time/Date -Magnitude -Place -Focus -Epicentre) ```

Answer 88

Time/Date: 4:53pm 12th January 2010 Magnitude: Magnitude 7 Earthquake in Haiti Place: Conservative plate boundary between the North American Plate and Caribbean plate Focus: A shallow Focus of only 13km deep Epicentre: Epicentre 25km South-West of the capital Port-Au-Prince

Question 89

Japan Earthquake Primary Impacts:

Answer 89

- 1 Dam Collapsed, along with 2 nuclear power stations being fractured. - US $235 billion worth of damage was caused by this, making it the costliest disaster in history - Between 667 and 1479 death occurred directly from the Earthquake - The motorway was badly damaged and the airport had to shut. - It caused liquefaction which turned the ground to sludge, therefore sinking buildings

Question 90

Japan Earthquake Secondary Impacts:

Answer 90

- Hundreds of thousands of buildings were completely destroyed, leaving 230,000 homeless. - The tsunami cut off power supplies to Fukushima nuclear power plant plant, creating a meltdown. - 93% of deaths were caused by drowning - Road and rail networks suffered severe damage, e.g 325km of rail washed away. - Homelessness, disrupted schooling, unemployment and increased fincancial stress/pressure lasted for years to cope with the damage, while there was no tourism to bring in money.

Question 91

Haiti Earthquake Primary Impacts:

Answer 91

- Around 316,000 people died with more than 300,000 also left injured by it. - Many houses instantly collapsed, making around 1.5 million homeless (180,000 homes destroyed). - All 8 hospitals in the area either collapsed or were badly damaged, with another 5,000 schools left destroyed and damaged too - The port, communication links and major roads were damaged beyond repair with rubble from collapsed buildings, meaning roads were blocked alongside rail links

Question 92

Haiti Earthquake Secondary Impacts:

Answer 92

- The water supply system was destroyed - a cholera outbreak killed over 8,000 people in the following months - Aid was harder to get in because, because the poet was destroyed too. - Haiti's important clothing factories were damaged, (They provided 60% of Haiti's exports) meaning 1 out of every 5 people lost their jobs. - By 2015 most people displaced by the earthquake had been re-housed. - Looting and crime increased as the government and police forces crumbled.

Question 93

Japan Earthquake Short Term Relief:

Answer 93

- Japanese aid and search and rescue teams were bought in. - Rescue workers and soldiers were sent in to help deal with the aftermath - Power supplies were restored in a few weeks after the earthquake - Transport and communication links were to be restored after a few weeks - Broken sea walls, flood defences and other defence systems that were destroyed by the earthquake and Tsunami were fixed.

Question 94

Japan Earthquake Long Term Relief:

Answer 94

- International aid and support came in and were mobilised and brought into action. - Countries sent teams over to help with the re-build and to get life back to normal as swiftly as possible - Tens of thousands of pre-fabricated temporary houses were set up. - A further 140,000 people were evacuated round a 20km radius of the Fukushima Power Plant

Question 95

Japan Earthquake Preparation:

Answer 95

- Not a single building in Tokyo collapsed thanks to the special building designs. - Children in Schools were put through earthquake drills and training in what to do in the event of an earthquake. - On transport like bullet trains, nobody died because of the automatic breaking system installed into them. - Sufficient warnings were given in advance, allowing as many people to evacuate as possible

Question 96

Japan Earthquake Prediction:

Answer 96

- They have advanced predicting and tracking systems on the power of Earthquakes along with the scale of a possible incoming Tsunami. - Large Sea walls were built to protect the lower coastal zones. - Warnings were quickly given to neighbouring countries

Question 97

Haiti Earthquake Short Term Relief:

Answer 97

- With the government buildings destroyed, emergency aid was initially slow. - Any of the police forces that were available would've provided as much aid as possible, with help coming from the neighbouring Dominican Republic. - Food, water, medical supplies, and temporary shelters were supplied by the USA as quick as possible. - There were a few water supplies and a few medical supplies - Most people had to put up with the situation, and just stay alive for as long as possible until real rescue came.

Question 97

Haiti Earthquake Long Term Relief:

Answer 97

- International aid and search and rescue teams were flown in to help trapped people. - The UK's disaster commission raised more than £100 million of supply and emergency aid. - American engineers and divers cleared the port, so that waiting ships could unload aid and troops into the land to restore law and order - Huge camps were made as the government moved around 235,000 out of Port-Au-Prince into less damaged areas, but finding land that was owned by the government was difficult, as not all land was officially registered - Over time, around 3/4 of the damaged buildings were inspected and repaired. - Some 200,000 people were paid or received food for public work, like clearing away rubble.

Question 98

Haiti Earthquake Prediction:

Answer 98

- They had a few seismologists, but no actual seismic network - There was not many building codes, meant buildings were poorly made - There was little overall preparation for an earthquake at all, from a very vulnerable and corrupt country

Question 99

Haiti Earthquake Preparation:

Answer 99

- The prediction was very poor, with there being no seismic network, meaning they were relying on other countries to track and forecast for them - They did not have many, or any defence systems in place to reduce the impacts of an earthquake - Their already corrupt government prioritised other things over preparation for natural disasters. - They now have a more organised system and emergency aid ready, incase this happens again, with the US and Canada, ensure that they have some kind of prediction system in place too

Question 100

Methods for Predicting Earthquakes

Answer 100

1. Earthquakes cannot be reliabily predicted, but scientists can still monitor certain signs that could indicate than an earthquake is likely. 2. Lasers can be used to detect the movement of tectonic plates before an earthquak 3. Vibrations in the Earth's crust can be monitored using seismometers. If vibrations increase, it could mean there's going to be an earthquake. 4. Scientists can measure gases (e.g radon) just before an earthquake. 5. Rocks will crack and expand because of the increased pressure just before an earthquake.

Question 101

Methods for Predicting Volcanoes

Answer 101

1. Volcanic eruptions can be predicted if the volcano is well monitored to look for the tell-tale signs that come before a volcanic eruption. 2. Things such as tiny earthquake and changes in the shape of the volcano (e.g bulges in the land where magma has built up under it) all mean an eruption is likely 3. Thermal imaging cameras can be used to detect changes in temperature around the volcano. Temperatures increase before an eruption. 4. Scientists can analyse the gases escaping from a volcano. Volcanoes emit lots of sulfurous gases before an eruption.

Question 102

Tropical cyclones in developed country: USA Hurricane Katrina Stats

Answer 102

- 1,833 deaths - Damage = $108bn - Levees burst = flood Delay in emergency response

Question 103

Tropical cyclones in developing country: Myanmar Cyclone Nargis 2008 Stats

Answer 103

- 140,000 deaths - Mangroves destroyed - Lack of warning & safe shelters in rural areas. - Rice paddies destroyed

Question 104

Tectonic hazard in developed country: Japan 2011 Stats

Answer 104

9.0 magnitude | $235bn damages 230,000 homeless 15,900 deaths Fukushima nuclear meltdown (↑econ↓Soc)

Question 105

Tectonic hazard in developing country: Haiti 2010 Stats

Answer 105

- 7.0 magnitude - $14bn damages - 1 million homeless 1 in 5 jobs lost - 316,000 deaths - Cholera outbreak (↓econ↑Soc)