Paper 1 - Medicine Through Time Flashcards
(238 cards)
1
Q
What percentage of soldiers’ time was spent in the front line?
A
15%
2
Q
What percentage of soldiers’ time was spent in the support trench?
A
10%
3
Q
What percentage of soldiers’ time was spent in the reserve line?
A
30%
4
Q
What percentage of soldiers’ time was spent away from the trenches?
A
45%
5
Q
How far from the firing line was the command trench?
A
10-20 metres
6
Q
How far from the firing line was the support line?
A
200-500 metres
7
Q
What was the purpose of communication trenches?
A
They linked the firing line with the command support and reserve trench.
8
Q
What was the purpose of the reserve line troops?
A
They could mount a counter attack if the enemy attacked the front line.
9
Q
What was the purpose of the parados?
A
Parapet, but behind the trench - designed to stop bullets carrying on to the next line of trenches and shield men from the blast of a shell exploding behind them.
10
Q
What was the purpose of rivetting?
A
The sides of the trench were supported with wood, netting, or corrugated iron to stop them caving in during bad weather or enemy shelling.
11
Q
What was the purpose of the fire step?
A
A platform in the side of the trench that allowed men to fire weapons from the trench, as trenches were deep enough that a man could stand upright in it and not be seen. Soldiers slept, sat, and ate on them during a lull in the fighting.
12
Q
What was the purpose of the parapet?
A
Earth on top of the trench to allow men to fire from the trench with a rest for his elbows and protection from incoming fire. They were 4-5 feet thick.
13
Q
What was the purpose of sandbags?
A
To support the trenches.
14
Q
What were dug-outs?
A
Holes boarded with wood, usually reserved for officer accommodation.
15
Q
What were fortifications?
A
Trenches were built up over time, especially when soldieries realised the war was going to be long. Used rows of barbed wire.
16
Q
How long was the Western Front?
A
400 miles long - stretching from the coast of Belgium, through France and ending near Switzerland (neutral)
17
Q
When could soldiers attack and why?
A
Early morning.
Couldn’t during day - too light.
Couldn’t during night - enemy sent up flares, so too light.
18
Q
What did soldiers do at night?
A
They were sent to crawl across No-Man’s Land with wire cutters to cut the barbed wire.
19
Q
How did the terrain on the Western Front impact help for the wounded?
A
Wounded had to be collected at night or during fire.
Deep mud made movement difficult and dangerous and shell craters were huge and filled with water making transportation hazardous.
Trench system could be very busy and manoeuvring stretchers around corners under fire was difficult.
Many men were wounded at once, slowing everyone down.
20
Q
How were rifles important in WW1?
A
Lee Enfield was the standard issue British rifle in WW1.
Could create automatic rapid fire.
Bullets were designed to be more pointed, to inflict deeper wounds.
Had the power to break major bones and pierce vital organs.
Caused major blood loss.
21
Q
How were machine guns important in WW1?
A
Could fire up to 600 bullets per minute.
Very heavy, manned by up to 3 men.
Defensive weapon.
Trenches protected soldiers manning machine guns.
Had power to break major bones and pierce vital organs.
22
Q
How was artillery important in WW1?
A
Had a range of up to 12 miles.
Big heavy guns which fired large shells designed to cause maximum damage to enemy fortifications.
Resulted in up to 60% of deaths.
Caused psychological damage - ‘shellshock’.
Removed limbs or inflicted major internal damage to the body and head, often causing rapid blood loss.
23
Q
How was shrapnel important in WW1?
A
Designed to explode in mid-air.
Flies in all direction.
Caused major blood loss.
24
Q
How were tanks important in WW1?
A
Made its debut during the Battle of the Somme.
First tanks were mechanically unreliable and kept breaking down.
25
How were grenades important in WW1?
Standard issue.
Lots of them.
26
Why were the new, technologically advanced weapons so significant in WW1?
The tactics used weren’t new, and had been used before with less powerful weapons, resulting in very high casualties.
27
What percentage of wounds was caused by bayonet wounds, hand grenades, and pistols?
5%
28
What was the survival rate of soldiers who suffered gunshot wounds to the leg in the early stages of the war and why?
20%
Due to blood loss and the impact of the shock of the wound on the body.
29
How many men had limbs amputated?
Over 41,000.
30
What was ‘blast impact’ from bullets, shrapnel and shells?
These objects first hit bones, muscles, or organs but set off a blast effect which destroyed or damaged tissue or even bone for inches around the initial impact.
31
When and why were steel helmets introduced in WW1?
Summer 1916 due to the amount of head injuries.
32
How many soldiers suffered wounds to the head and eyes?
Over 60,000.
33
Why were infections so common in WW1?
Most trenches were on farmland, which farmers spread with manure, containing lots of bacteria, which then got into injuries.
34
What was gas gangrene and how was it identified?
An infection under the surface of the skin. Nurses noticed it due to the smell and the wound would start to bubble up as the infection would produce gas. It turned white then green, and made a squelching noise when pressed. This then caused blood poisoning (septicaemia).
35
What was the death rate of mustard gas?
2.6%
36
When was chlorine gas first used?
22nd April 1915 at second battle of Ypres by the Germans. 5,000 French soldiers died.
37
What was the first type of gas mask?
A piece of cloth that soldiers urinated on, as urine contains ammonia, which neutralises the gas.
38
Why was gas in WW1 important?
Good way to reduce enemy’s morale.
Big psychological impact due to the suffering it caused.
39
What did mustard gas do?
Blistered skin and caused temporary blindness. Contaminated clothes which could be spread and passed on, causing more deaths than chlorine gas and disrupting hospitals.
40
What did chlorine gas do?
Choked and suffocated.
41
What colour was chlorine gas?
Green (mainly)
42
How many casualties and deaths were caused by chlorine, phosgene, and mustard gas?
1.3 million casualties and 90,000 deaths.
43
Describe the evacuation route.
1. Stretcher bearers - carried bandages and morphine, 16 per battalion of up to 1,000 soldiers, took 4 men to carry a stretcher (sometimes 6-8 in thick mud).
2. Regimental Aid Post - close to the firing line, distinguished between lightly wounded and those needing urgent medical attention, 1 medical officer and up to 30 orderlies.
3. Field Ambulance/Dressing Station - large, mobile unit with medical officers, support staff and from 1915, some nurses, sorted people through triage (serious attention, minor attention, going to die regardless), between a quarter of a mile to a mile away from the front line.
4. Casualty Clearing Station - 7-12 miles away from fighting, around 7 doctors with nursing staff, by 1917 were performing more operations than hospitals, contained operating theatres, mobile X-ray machines etc, could deal with 1,000 casualties at a time.
5. Base Hospitals - for those most likely to survive, in large converted buildings near railways, many people arrived by rain, barge along canals or ambulance, by 1918 some could have up to 2,500 patients, had operating theatres, X-ray departments, most patients sent back to England via train.
44
What were symptoms of trench fever?
Severe headaches
Shivering
Eye pain
Joint pain
Rashes
45
How was trench fever spread?
Lice
46
How did soldiers try to deal with trench fever?
Disinfecting clothes/bedding
Using bathhouses
Louse repellent gel
Picking lice off clothing
47
What caused trench foot?
Standing in waterlogged trenches for long periods of time left men’s feet numb, swollen, blistered and turning blue. Tight boots restricted blood flow which added to the problem.
48
Why was trench foot a serious problem?
If it developed and deteriorated, it could lead to gangrene, which often had to be treated with amputation.
49
How did soldiers try to deal with trench foot?
Every man had to have 3 pairs of socks and change them twice a day, and rub whale oil into their feet for protection.
Tried to drain trenches using mechanical pumps.
High rubber waders were issued to wear in the worst conditions, and men were split into pairs to look after each other’s feet.
50
What was shellshock known as during WW1 and why?
NYD.N (Not Yet Diagnosed. Nervous)
The armies didn’t fully understand it, as they didn’t know how to treat it.
Officers didn’t want other soldiers thinking they could mimic the signs of shellshock, in order to be sent home, so they didn’t give it a name or acknowledge it.
51
What percentage of WW1 deaths were caused by artillery?
60%
52
What organisation were male doctors part of?
Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC)
Had little pre-war training.
53
Which organisations were women part of in WW1?
First Aid Nursing Yeomanry (FANY)
Women were only involved due to the high number of casualties.
Volunteer Aid Detachment (VAD)
Usually richer women, didn’t get paid said it was ‘their duty’.
54
How many people per day were recovered by stretcher bearers?
12 people per day
55
What was the Carrel-Dakin Method and what did it treat?
Treated infection and gas gangrene.
Was a system of tubes, keeping a chemical solution flowing through the wound and fought infection/stopped it from developing.
56
What were some benefits to the Carrel-Dakin Method?
Effective at treating infections.
Continuous, not a one-off treatment.
Reduced the number of amputations that resulted from infection.
57
What was extensive surgery and what did it treat in WW1?
Treated infection.
From 1915 onwards.
Made sure all shell/bullet fragments/shrapnel were removed.
Cut out all tissue/dead muscle surrounding the would that might become infected.
Didn’t sew up wounds immediately, kept open for use of antibiotics.
58
What were some benefits to extensive surgery in WW1?
Reduced chances of gas gangrene and tetanus.
59
What was plastic surgery and what did it treat?
Used to solve problems created by so many terrible wounds caused by bullet and shell damage, especially to the face.
Skin grafts took skin from one part of the patient’s body and grafted it onto the area of the wound, developed by Harold Gillies.
Special hospitals were built for plastic surgery.
60
How many plastic surgery operations were carried out during WW1?
Over 11,000
61
What were some benefits to plastic surgery in WW1?
Helped people’s face injuries.
62
What was the Thomas Splint and what did it treat in WW1?
A splint to help fractured bones heal.
Early in the war, soldiers who had their femur broken by gunfire died in huge numbers.
All regimental officers were taught how to use it, so it was used as near to the front line as possible, in RAPs and Dressing Stations. This meant that when soldiers reached CCSs, they were fit enough to be operated on as they hadn’t lost too much blood, saving their lives.
63
What were some benefits to the Thomas Splint in WW1?
Pulled the leg lengthways, stopping the bones grinding on each other, so it greatly reduced blood loss.
The Thomas Splint reduced the death rate from this type of wound from 80% to 20%.
64
What were mobile X-ray machines and what did it treat?
Many casualties were caused by bullets, shrapnel, and tiny fragments of these objects. X-rays made rapid location of these objects possible, enabling surgeons to remove them more easily and completely, reducing chances of infection.
By early 1916, most CCSs and hospitals had X-ray equipment with additional X-ray lorries attached to groups of CCSs.
65
What were some benefits to mobile X-ray machines in WW1?
Reduced the death rate from infections.
66
What were blood transfusions and blood storage and what did they treat?
The impact of high explosives and machine gun bullets led to many men dying from blood loss, when the wounds themselves need not have been fatal.
Richard Lewisohn (American) discovered that sodium citrate could be added to blood to prevent it from clotting.
Scientists discovered blood could be stored in refrigerated conditions, and adding a citrate glucose solution allowed it to be stored for several days.
Geoffrey Keynes (British) created a portable machine for storing blood.
67
When were blood groups discovered?
1901
68
What were some benefits to blood transfusions and blood storage?
Increased number of transfusions.
First blood depot created before Battle of Cambrai 1917.
Stocks of blood group O were collected and held ready for use as soon as Battle of Cambrai began.
Group O was chosen as it can be given to anyone safely, even if they’re a different blood group.
69
When was the first blood depot created?
Before the Battle of Cambrai, 1917.
70
When was the Battle of the Somme?
July-November 1916
71
How many people died on the first day of the Battle of the Somme?
60,000
72
How many people died during the Battle of the Somme?
400,000 Allied
450,000 German
73
How much territory did the British gain during the Battle of the Somme?
Just 5 miles.
74
When was the Battle of Arras?
April 1917
75
What did British forces do during the Battle of Arras?
British burrowed tunnels underground, creating accommodation for the soldiers, and a hospital large enough for 700 beds and operating theatres. Tunnels were also used as shelters against artillery fire.
76
When was the Battle of Cambrai?
October 1917
77
What happened during the Battle of Cambrai?
British army used over 450 tanks to attack German trenches for the first time. They were very effective for attacking across No-Man’s Land but also further destroyed land, making the transportation of injured men difficult. After initial success, the British were forced back, and there were 40,000 British casualties.
78
When was the Battle of Verdun?
February-December 1916
79
How many French soldiers were killed during the Battle of Verdun?
160,000
80
When was the First Battle of Ypres?
October-November 1914
81
When was the Second Battle of Ypres?
April-May 1915
82
When was the Third Battle of Ypres?
July-November 1917
83
What happened during the First Battle of Ypres?
British troops stopped the German army from capturing ports, like Calais, meaning reinforcements and equipment could keep arriving by ship for the British army.
84
What happened during the Second Battle of Ypres?
Chlorine gas was used for the first time, by the Germans, but they failed to capture Ypres. Allied casualties are estimated at 60,000, and German at 35,000.
85
What happened during the Third Battle of Ypres?
British and Allied troops launched a major attack to stop the German army breaking through weakened French defences, and aimed to capture Passchendaele ridge near Ypres, but German defences were strong and the ground turned to mud due to heavy, consistent rain. The ridge was captured, but there were 245,000 casualties.
86
When did the US join WW1?
6th April 1917
87
What happened during the 1918 German Spring Offensive?
German army launched a major attack along a 50-mile front, aiming to end the war before US forces arrived, and Germany ran out of food supplies. At first, it was successful, forcing British and Allied troops to retreat, causing 200,000 British casualties. However, the German army couldn’t make a complete breakthrough.
88
What were the 4 humours?
Black bile
Yellow bile
Blood
Phlegm
89
What did Hippocrates do?
Created the theory of 4 humours.
90
What did Galen do?
Built upon Hippocrates’ work.
Wrote over 350 books proving his 4 Humours theory.
Made new discoveries about the anatomy of the body.
Believed it was important to dissect dead bodies (but Church forbid this at the time).
Dissected animals, which have different anatomies to humans, so many of his findings were incorrect.
91
What was the Theory of Opposites?
People get sick when their humours are unbalanced. Patients should be treated in a way that restores their humours. They should be bled if they have too much blood or made to vomit if they have too much yellow bile.
92
What was the Theory of 4 Humours?
The body contains four humours (blood, phlegm, black bile, yellow bile) and when you’re healthy, the humours are balanced, and when your humours are unbalanced, you become unwell.
93
What did Galen and Hippocrates recommend to keep the 4 humours balanced?
Exercise and a good diet.
94
Why was the Theory of 4 Humours so popular?
It was supported by the Church - doctors didn’t dare search for/start using alternative ideas because it was heresy to go against the Church, and you could be punished.
It seemed to make sense - when a patient was sick, they often saw one of the 4 humours, and sometimes treatments worked, so it seemed rational.
Hippocrates and Galen have good advice - they told doctors to observe patients and write down symptoms, which was reassuring.
95
How did doctors diagnose patients in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Charts
Star signs
Theory of Opposites
96
What is miasma?
‘Bad air’ - people believed that disease was transmitted through ‘bad air’ which was related to God as bad smells indicated sin.
97
What were some religious/supernatural explanations for the cause of illness in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
God made people ill to test their faith or as a punishment for sin.
Alignment of planets and stars.
Foreigners or people from different religions.
98
What percentage of Britain’s population were killed due to the Black Death (1348-49)?
40%
99
What was the process once a person had been infected with the Black Death?
Day 1 - buboes appeared in the victim’s armpits and groin (roughly egg-sized, but could be apple-sized).
Day 2 - victim vomited and developed a fever.
Day 3 - bleeding under the skin caused dark blotches all over the body.
Day 4 - disease attacked the nervous system, causing spasms and terrible pain.
Day 5 - buboes sometimes burst and a foul-smelling black liquid oozed out (the person usually lived if this happened), in most cases the victim suffered a painful death.
100
What did people believe caused the Black Death (1348-49)?
God’s punishment
Miasma
Impact of the planets
4 humours
Foreigners/Jewish people
101
How did people try to treat the Black Death (1348-49)?
Believed God sent the pestilence, so only God could treat/cute it - tried to show God they were sorry for their sins and plead for forgiveness.
Believed dirt poisoned the air, making them ill, but God allowed the air to be poisoned to cleanse people of their sins, so they couldn’t treat it.
Believed planets caused it, so couldn’t treat that.
Believed in 4 humours - bleeding/purging, based on theory of opposites, put holy charms around victims’ necks and prayed to God for them to heal, cold foods and baths.
Used herbal remedies.
102
How did people try to prevent the Black Death (1348-49) believed to be caused by God’s punishment?
Services and processions in every Church every day.
Prayed for forgiveness for sins.
Lit candles as offerings.
Fasted to show they were sorry.
Pilgrimages to pray for forgiveness at the tombs of saints.
Some people punished themselves in public, begging for forgiveness.
Prayed to let their family and friends recover.
103
How did people try to prevent the Black Death (1348-49) believed to be caused by miasma?
Cleansed the city, employed rakers, removed dung, fined people for dropping litter, tried to clear water supplies, banned slaughtering animals in streets.
Purified air - lit fires, carried herbs.
Kept air moving - rang bells, kept birds to fly around the house.
104
How did people try to prevent the Black Death (1348-49) believed to be caused by the planets?
Studied astrology - planets’ movements were important parts of doctors’ training.
105
How did people try to prevent the Black Death (1348-49) believed to be caused by 4 humours?
Kept clean
Exercised
Ate well
106
How did women treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Treated most illnesses, knew a wide range of remedies.
Acted as midwives.
In some towns, midwives were apprenticed, had licenses and were paid.
Could qualify as surgeons by working as apprentices.
Weren’t allowed to become physicians.
107
How did hospitals treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
After 11th century, hospitals appeared in towns. By 1400, there were 500.
Mostly cared for older people who couldn’t look after themselves.
Run by monks who provided food/warmth/prayers.
Had altars, where priests said mass 7 times per day.
Rarely admitted sick, in case they spread infection.
108
How did physicians treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Trained at universities for 7 years, read Hippocrates’ and Galen’s books.
Fewer than 100 physicians in England in 1300.
Only the rich could afford their fees.
109
How did barber surgeons treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Didn’t go to university - trained as apprentices though observing others.
Improved their skills through practice/reading books on surgery.
Did basic surgery (bleeding, removing surface tumours, sewing up wounds, making splints for broken bones).
No effective anaesthetics but occasionally had to amputate limbs/remove bladder stones.
Some used fine needles to remove cataracts from eyes to improve/restore sight.
110
How did apothecaries treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Mixed ingredients to make ointments and medicines for physicians.
Learned from other apothecaries.
Made own medicines to sell to the sick.
111
How did herbal remedies treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Many remedies did help the sick.
Honey and plantain often used for cuts/wounds/dog bites, and do contain ingredients that fight infection.
Most common remedies were made from herbs, minerals, animal parts.
Most women knew them by heart but were written in books with pictures of ingredients and explanations of quantities and how to mix potions.
Included prayers to say while collecting herbs to increase effectiveness of the remedy.
112
How did bleeding treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Used to balance humours.
Done by a surgeon, who warmed a bleeding cup, placed it over a cut, and let the warmth draw out blood.
Leeches were used to sink their teeth into the patient and draw out blood.
Purging meant swallowing herbs/animal fat to make the person sick or taking a laxative to empty their bowels.
Physicians used zodiacs charts to decide best time for treatment as believed parts of body were linked to signs of zodiac and planets.
Zodiac chart showed the doctor when to avoid treating each part of the body.
113
How did surgery treat illnesses in medieval times (1250-1500)?
Surgeons improved techniques/instruments through practice.
‘Wound Man’ common illustration, showing surgeons how to deal with different wounds.
Couldn’t do complex surgery inside body - didn’t have the anatomical knowledge or effective anaesthetics.
Used herbs like opium/hemlock to make patients drowsy, but risked putting patient to sleep permanently.
Wine/vinegar/honey used to clean wounds, but couldn’t prevent infections spreading or stop heavy bleeding.
114
What were the methods used to prevent illness in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Stayed healthy
Washed regularly
Cleaned teeth
Bathed
Exercised
Sent urine samples to physicians to check for illness
Kept towns clean
Piped in fresh water to towns/cities
Built wells
Improved towns by building latrines
Employed rakers
Paved roads to make them drier/easier to clean
New laws punished litter-droppers
Made butchers slaughter meat outside city walls
New laws said cess-pits had to be lined with stone/brick to not contaminate water.
115
Why did the Church mean that little or no change in medical ideas occurred in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Had a major influence on what people believed.
Believed God sent the Black Death to punish them for their sins, so if God sent diseases, they thought it meant they had no need to look for other causes.
Told people not to challenge the Bible or they’d go to Hell - fear meant hardly anyone dared to challenge the Church.
Supported Galen’s ideas so no Christians dared to question Galen’s ideas - if you questioned Galen, you’d be challenging God and the Church.
116
Why did education mean that little or no change in medical ideas occurred in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Church controlled education, including how physicians were trained at universities, was expensive, training took 7 years, had to read Hippocrates’ and Galen’s books and taught they were correct in every way, and were discouraged from experimenting/thinking what caused/how to treat disease.
Doctors attended dissections of human bodies but weren’t trying to make new discoveries - dissections were used to prove/demonstrate that Galen was correct.
No one tried to find out about the structure of the human body/how it worked.
117
Why did respect for tradition mean that little or no change in medical ideas occurred in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Result of influence from Church/how doctors were educated was that most people had great respect for the past and for traditional ideas.
Hard for new ideas to spread because books were written out by hand until printing came to England (1470s).
118
Why did Galen’s and Hippocrates’ ideas mean that little or no change in medical ideas occurred in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
Galen built on Hippocrates’ work, his 350 books were the main books studied by doctors.
Galen made new discoveries in anatomy, thought it was important to dissect bodies (illegal in Medieval period though).
Seemed to be evidence that their ideas were correct.
Ideas seemed logical and reassuring if you were sick.
Treatments seemed rational.
119
Why did the government mean that little or no change in medical ideas occurred in the medieval period (1250-1500)?
King’s government didn’t spend money on medical research and care.
Major task of King were to defend the country in war, and to keep the country peaceful.
Ordered towns to be cleaned, but not regularly.
No taxes were collected by the King’s government to improve people’s health or medicine - no money spent to find medical breakthroughs.
120
When was the printing press first introduced in England?
1470s
121
Why was Thomas Sydenham important for change during the renaissance period (1500-1700)
Known as ‘English Hippocrates’.
Believed every disease was different so had to be treated differently.
Told doctors to ‘go to the bedside’ and observe patients as it was the only way to learn about disease.
Said doctors must take a full history of the patient’s health and symptoms, observing and recording the illness with great care, so the correct diagnosis was made.
Made detailed descriptions of many illnesses including the first description of scarlet fever.
Believed in allowing the body to fight the illness by itself.
122
Why was the Royal Society important for change in the renaissance period?
Supported Sydenham’s work.
People with interests in physics, botany, astronomy, medicine and other sciences attended weekly meetings in London to discuss new ideas, conduct experiments and attend lectures.
King Charles II attended meetings.
Society had its own laboratory and equipment.
Published books/articles to spread ideas and discoveries (books printed faster and cheaper due to printing press).
123
What did people believe before Harvey’s work in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
New bloom was constantly manufactured in the liver to replace blood burned up in the body.
Veins carried blood and air around the body.
Blood passed from one side of the heart to the other through tiny invisible holes in the septum.
124
What did Harvey discover in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Blood circulates around the body.
Heart acts as a pump to pump blood around the body.
Blood flows in a one-way system around the body.
Veins only carry blood (not blood and air).
Did lots of dissections and dissected cold-blooded animals like frogs that were alive.
125
What was the immediate impact of Harvey’s discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Didn’t improve health in the short term - people just had a better understanding of anatomy.
126
What were the limitations to Harvey’s discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
There was still much more to discover (blood groups etc).
His discovery was only gradually accepted, as he was contradicting Galen.
His discovery didn’t make anyone better.
127
What were the long-term impacts of Harvey’s discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Laid the foundation for future investigation of the blood and physiology.
Many aspects of medicine depend on understanding the blood system, such as surgery.
Provided more evidence for the importance of dissection and experiments.
128
What factors helped Harvey in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
He was thorough in his work, spending many hours repeating experiments and going over every detail.
Didn’t believe Galen was correct, and tested Galen’s ideas through his own experiments.
Mechanical water pumps in London may have given him the idea that the heart pumps blood, and used modern scientific methods.
Read the work of previous doctors, and used their findings to develop his own work.
129
What did people believe before Vesalius’ work in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Believed that Galen’s description of the human’s body was correct.
Human jaw bone was made up of 2 bones.
Breast bone had 7 parts.
Blood flows into the heart through invisible holes in the septum.
130
What did Vesalius discover in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Produced a book (‘Fabric of the Human Body’) on anatomy containing detailed illustrations about the human body, which made doctors realises the importance of dissections.
Proved that the human jaw bone is made from one bone.
Human breast bone has 3 parts.
Heart doesn’t contain invisible holes.
131
What was the immediate impact of Vesalius’ discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Didn’t improve health in the short term but accurate knowledge of the human body paved the way for developments later on.
132
What were the limitations to Vesalius’ discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Many doctors refused to accept that Galen could be wrong, and the Church didn’t accept Vesalius’ findings.
133
What were the long-term impacts of Vesalius’ discoveries in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
His inquiry began to change attitudes and encouraged others to investigate.
Doctors realised there was more to be learned - Galen hadn’t discovered everything, which inspired further inquiry.
His book spread knowledge and helped attitudes start to change.
134
What factors helped Vesalius in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Printing press - Vesalius supervised the engraving of his illustrations and the printing himself, and thousands of copies of his book were used all over Europe.
He was inventive and determined - once he stole the body of a criminal from the gallows to dissect, and he worked in Padua, where dissection was encouraged.
Believed it was viral to ask questions and challenge traditional ideas by carrying out dissections.
135
When was the first microscope invented and why was it important for medical progress in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
1590
Used in experiments at the Royal Society, new detail that was unable to be seen before.
136
What did people believe caused the Plague (1665-66)?
Miasma
God
4 humours
Stars/planets
Rotting waste/food
Stagnant water
137
How did people try to treat the Plague (1665-66)?
Herbal remedies
Cut open buboes to let pus out
Traders sold medicines, claiming they were life-saving
Praying
Bleeding/purging
Pest houses (only 1% went to them)
138
How did people try to prevent the Plague (1665-66)?
Carried herbs and put in windows/doors.
Stayed at home.
Coins soaked in vinegar to avoid passing it on.
Chewed tobacco.
Killed cats and dogs (80,000 cats and 40,000 dogs).
Days of public prayer ordered by King Charles II.
Fasting.
Rich bought ‘unicorn horn’, opium and rosemary.
Poor bought arsenic, amulets worn under chests and armpits, smocked/chewed tobacco.
139
How many people were killed by the Plague (1665-66) in London?
100,000 (1in 3)
140
What was the role of the Church Warden during the Plague (1665-66)?
Raised taxes/donations
Kept records
Appointed workers (rakers etc)
Leader in the community
Kept law and order
141
When was the first outbreak of the Plague and what did the Privy Council order?
April 1665
Marked houses with a red cross, and locked the entire household (even unaffected) inside for 40 days.
142
How many people fled London after the first outbreak of Plague and why was this important?
200,000
Those affected but not yet showing symptoms spread the Plague to different places, fuelling the epidemic.
143
What were Plague orders during the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
If you showed symptoms, you had a duty to report it.
You and your family would be locked at home for 40 days.
Red cross painted on doors to warn others.
Watchmen made sure no one left, sent food/water, occasionally sent in a nurse.
Searchers checked to see if you were dead.
144
What were pest houses during the Plague (1665-1666)?
Hospitals for plague victims that isolated the sick.
145
Describe the ‘costume’ worn by apothecaries’ ‘Plague Doctors’ when they tried to cure victims of the Plague.
Mask and coat made from thickly waxed leather.
Beak with herbs in it.
Designed to ward off evil.
Birds were believed to attract disease so the mask was shaped like a bird’s beak in the hope it would cause the plague to leave the patient.
146
What 2 proposals did the House of Lords eventually make during the Plague (1665-1666) and did they help?
No member of the Lords could be shut up in their homes.
No plague hospitals could be built near the homes of anyone important.
Made the situation worse.
147
What were the problems of ‘shutting up’ victims of the Plague (1665-1666)?
Created tension between neighbours.
Locked sick and healthy together.
148
How did women treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Played a major part in medicine.
Wealthy ladies provided care for local families.
Mixed and sold herbal remedies.
Nurses were women and had no medical training.
149
How did hospitals treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Many medieval hospitals closed when Henry VIII closed the monasteries.
Almshouses looked after the poor.
Some closed hospitals were taken over by town councils (St Bartholomew’s had 12 wards, up to 300 patients by 1660, 3 physicians, 3 surgeons, 15 nursing sisters.
Most hospitals didn’t admit infectious diseases.
Provided warmth, food, prayer.
Used herbal remedies as treatment.
150
How did bleeding/purging treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Very common, still strong belief in 4 humours.
Used to balance out the humours, which weakened patients considerably.
Herbs from abroad used as a laxative.
151
How did herbal remedies treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Handed down from generation to generation.
Some were effective (honey kills some bacteria).
Most people wrote down remedies as literacy improved.
Still didn’t know why remedies worked.
Used in hospitals.
152
How did God and the King treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Believed the King had healing properties given to him from God (King is God’s representative on Earth).
People travelled to be touched by King Charles II.
153
How did folk remedies treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Used cures based on magic.
Used when people were desperate for help.
154
How did apothecaries treat illnesses in the renaissance period (1500-1700)?
Remedies were cheap and familiar.
Served apprenticeships.
Provided treatments for those who couldn’t afford physicians.
155
What is a vaccination?
When a less serious or weakened version of a disease is given to prevent a more serious outbreak.
156
What was Jenner’s process to creating his smallpox vaccination in 1796?
1. Jenner wanted to test the theory that milkmaids who caught cowpox didn’t go on to catch smallpox (a deadlier disease). He wanted to use this idea to try and prevent the disease.
2. He selected a healthy boy to test his theory on. He took pus from a cowpox sore and inserted it into 2 cuts that he made on the boy’s hand.
3. 7 days later, the boy seemed to develop cowpox (became chilly, lost appetite, headache), it was clear he was unwell, but 24 hours later we was perfectly well again.
4. Jenner then infected him with smallpox, and the boy didn’t contract the disease.
5. Several months later, he infected him with smallpox again but no disease followed.
6. Jenner’s method had worked - infecting someone with cowpox prevented smallpox. He called the new method vaccination.
157
What is inoculation?
When a small dose of a disease is put into the body, which then fights the disease, helping to prevent a more serious attack of the disease in the future.
158
Why could inoculation be dangerous?
If too much of the disease was given to the patient, they could die.
159
Why could Jenner’s smallpox vaccination be considered a breakthrough?
Jenner showed the value of scientific method - he found a way of saving thousands of people from smallpox, his work was a great example of scientific methods which inspired others to do the same.
Inoculation had limited impact on smallpox - risky as too strong a dose could cause death or be passed on, vaccination didn’t have these risks, most people couldn’t afford inoculation but Jenner gave free vaccines and government gave money to pay for free vaccines.
Vaccination saved many lives - wasn’t compulsory but was widely used leading to a significant fall in deaths from smallpox. Became compulsory in 1871, and in 1970s was wiped out.
160
Why could Jenner’s smallpox vaccination not be considered a breakthrough?
Stopping smallpox wasn’t new - inoculation was being used.
Opposition to vaccination - some from inoculators/doctors no longer earning money by giving inoculations, some from people who didn’t like the idea of treatment from animals. Jenner wasn’t a famous doctor so people didn’t believe him.
Vaccination wasn’t enforced for many years - voluntary until 1852 as government didn’t want to force people to vaccinate their kids, even after 1852 government didn’t really enforce the law until 1871 when people were fined for not having their kids vaccinated.
Vaccination didn’t lead to other breakthroughs - only dealt with one disease and was a ‘one-off’ discovery through a chance connection between cowpox and smallpox. Jenner didn’t know how vaccination worked, so he couldn’t use his method to prevent other diseases.
161
What factors helped Jenner to make his discovery during the breakthrough period (1700-1900)?
Communication - published his findings in a book, which encouraged the government to support vaccines and they offered free vaccines and made them compulsory. Others became aware of his methods through his book.
Government - smallpox was wiped out but only after vaccination was made compulsory and since parents were reluctant to vaccinate their kids, the government started to find people, dramatically decreasing the death rate.
Jenner adopted a scientific method, stressed the important of observation, was determined, used his own experiences to find alternatives.
His attitude from his own experiences meant he found a safer, risk-free procedure.
162
What is public health?
Laws and measures which prevent diseases and protect the health of the public. It would include providing clean water, disposing of waste properly, maintaining sewers and ensuring high standards in hospitals.
163
Why were conditions so bad during the breakthrough period (1700-1900)?
Towns and cities had grown rapidly during the Industrial Revolution as people moved in search of work in factories and mills. These people were housed in cheap, badly built and crowded homes in streets where water came from a pump next to a privy.
164
Who was Edwin Chadwick and what did he do?
A civil servant who published a report where he described the effects of terrible living conditions on people’s health, including figures on life expectancy in towns compared with the countryside. He identified the link between squalid conditions and disease.
165
What did the 1848 Public Health Act do and why didn’t it make much difference to public health?
A National Board of Health was set up and in towns where the death rate was very high, the government COULD force the local council to improve the water supply and sewage systems.
Local councils were ENCOURAGED to collect taxes to pay for improvements IF local taxpayers supported it.
They were allowed to appoint medical officers to oversee public health.
These acts weren’t compulsory so had little impact.
166
How many people died due to the large epidemic of cholera in 1854?
Over 20,000
167
What did Snow’s book say and how was it received by the public?
People caught cholera from water they used for washing and drinking, not from miasma.
His suggestion was mocked by many doctors as the belief in miasma was strong.
168
How did Snow prove his theory about cholera?
When a cholera epidemic broke out in 1854, he mapped out all the deaths and realised they were all centred around a water pump on Broad Street. When he removed the handle, there were no more deaths. It was later discovered that a cesspit, only a metre away from the pump, was leaking into the drinking water.
169
What problems remained after Snow proved his theory about cholera in 1854?
Many scientists still clung to the miasma theory, and wealthy people didn’t want to pay taxes to pay for the cost of water supplies, sewers etc that would benefit poor people who lived in the poorer parts of town.
170
What were the two main reasons why the Public Health Act was finally passed?
Pasteur’s Germ Theory proved there was a scientific link between dirt and disease. Snow had been correct in his arguments, even if he didn’t know it was bacteria in the water that spread cholera. Theory of miasma finally faded away - faced with scientific proof, people were more willing to pay taxes to cover the costs of public health reforms and more local towns began to make these reforms.
Government needed voted as, in 1867, working men in towns were given the right to vote for the first time, doubling voting numbers, then increasing again in 1884 with men in country areas. Politicians had to promise laws, if they wanted to win elections, in order to win votes from working men, not just wealthy/middle classes. The 1870s and 1880s saw many new laws passed designed to improve ordinary people’s lives.
171
What did the 1875 Public Health Act state?
It was now compulsory for local councils to improve sewers/drainage, provide fresh water supplies, appoint medical officers and sanitary inspectors to inspect public health facilities. Other laws improved the standards of housing and stopped the pollution of rivers (from which people got water).
172
Why were both Jenner and Snow’s discoveries limited?
They didn’t know exactly why their discovery worked - they didn’t know that bacteria caused disease.
173
What was the theory of spontaneous generation during the breakthrough period (1700-1900)?
The idea that microbes were the product of decay and they caused disease.
174
What did Pasteur’s Germ Theory (1861) claim?
Microbes in the air cause decay.
Microbes can be killed by heating them (Pasteurisation).
The air is full of microbes which can cause disease.
175
Why did Pasteur’s Germ Theory have little impact early on?
Doctors like Henry Bastian refused to accept that microbes like bacteria could make people ill, so they continued to believe in spontaneous generation.
176
What was Pasteur’s process in developing Germ Theory?
He published it in 1861.
In 1864, he carried out experiments that convinced other scientists that his germ theory was correct. However, his theory was very general - he said that bacteria cause disease, but couldn’t identify the specific bacteria that cause individual diseases.
In 1865, there was a cholera epidemic in France. Pasteur tried to find the exact bacterium causing cholera but all he could see under the microscope was a confused mass.
His theory wasn’t having much of an impact - belief in miasma remained strong.
177
How did Koch continue Pasteur’s work on Germ Theory?
In 1876, Robert Koch made a practical breakthrough - he was able to identify the exact bacteria causing anthrax. This was an important discovery - it was the first time that anyone had identified the specific microbe that caused a disease.
Koch published his methods of identifying disease-causing bacteria, which involved growing bacteria using agar jelly in a petri dish, which would grow cultures of bacteria.
Over time, Koch and his team identified more bacteria which caused individual diseases. This meant that vaccines could be developed to prevent them. This finally persuaded people that miasma was not the main cause of disease.
178
Why was Koch’s impact so important in the breakthrough period (1700-1900)?
He invented a method to grow and stain bacteria to make them easier to identify.
Doctors now began to seek ways to attack the microbe that caused disease, rather than just the symptoms.
He inspired other scientists to discover the causes of pneumonia and tetanus.
His methods are still used to this day.
179
What was the wider impact of Germ Theory?
Creations of more vaccines.
Identification of specific microbes causing individual diseases to then create vaccines.
Cleaner streets.
1875 Public Health Act (clean water, improved sewers, inspections, medical officers).
Government taking a greater role in people’s health, government intervention increased.
Improved standards in hospitals.
180
What did the death rate fall to in Crimea after Nightingale’s work?
Fell from 40% to 2%
181
What were hospital conditions like in Crimea before Nightingale?
Cramped, stuffy wards helped infections spread quickly.
Nursing staff weren’t trained.
Nurses were often criticised for being dirty or drunk.
Few toilets.
Poor sewage system, which spread infections easily.
Wards weren’t cleaned often or effectively.
182
What did Nightingale do about hospitals after the Crimean War?
Focused on improving sanitation in hospitals (clean water, good drains and sewers, toilet facilities, total cleanliness), ventilation to make sure patients got fresh and clean air to breathe, food supplies, clothing, washing facilities for patients.
183
What 2 things did Nightingale do to educate people on nursing and cleanliness?
Set up her first Nightingale School for Nurses in 1860.
In 1859, wrote ‘Notes on Nursing’ and in 1863, wrote ‘Notes in Hospitals’ - both books were very influential over the world, providing the basis for training nurses and hospital design.
184
What did Nightingale do during the 1853-56 Crimean War?
Cleaned wards.
Repaired wards.
Improved ventilation.
Made nurses become more disciplined/trained and clean.
185
Why was Nightingale’s positive impact a chance occurrence?
She paid little attention to Pasteur’s Germ Theory as she believed that miasma was the main cause of disease and, in many ways correctly, continued to associate disease with dirt, which was why she concentrated on improving hygiene and cleanliness in hospitals all her life.
186
What impact did Nightingale have?
Her two books ‘Notes on Nursing’ (1859) and ‘Notes on Hospitals (1863) set out the key roles of nurses and importance of training.
New hospitals were built out of materials that could easily be cleaned.
‘Pavilion style’ hospitals, where separate wards were built to ensure infectious patients could be kept separate.
Set up Nightingale School for Nurses in 1860, training nurses on sanitation.
Made nursing into a respectable occupation - more middle class women became nurses.
187
How quickly could Robert Liston remove a limb?
28 seconds.
188
When was ether first used as an anaesthetic?
1846
189
Due to anaesthetics, which parts of the body could now be operated on?
Stomach
Intestines
190
What were the problems of ether as an anaesthetic?
Mildly explosive.
Made patients vomit.
Had to wear a face mask, making some procedures difficult.
191
Who discovered nitrous oxide (laughing gas) and what kind of procedure was used to test it?
Humphry Davy
Tooth removal
192
What was surgery in the breakthrough period (1700-1900) like before James Simpson’s discovery?
Patients were awake and experienced pain, and consequently moved, meaning mistakes were made and surgery was difficult.
People watched operations as entertainment, increasing risk of infection.
193
What did James Simpson discover, and how did John Snow make it safer?
In 1847, James Simpson discovered chloroform, by experimenting personally with chemicals to find the most effective anaesthetics.
In 1848, John Snow invented an inhaler to regulate the dose of chloroform, and to make it safer.
194
What was the immediate impact of James Simpson’s discovery in 1847?
It helped improve surgery in the short term - within days, he used it to help women in childbirth and other operations.
195
Did the use of anaesthetics actually make operations safer?
No - they attempted more complex operations, resulting in more fatalities. Problems with infection and blood remained and the number of deaths between 1850 and 1870 actually increased.
196
What was the long-term impact on medicine and medical ideas of James Simpson’s discovery in 1847?
Was the starting point for the search for an effective anaesthetic.
Surgeons could be more precise and accurate, leading to safer surgery which allowed for more ambitious operations.
Introduced the role of anaesthetists, who were responsible for the safety and wellbeing of patients during operations, important for care and treatment.
197
What factors helped James Simpson with his 1847 discovery of chloroform?
He was committed, dedicated, tested chemicals on himself.
Wrote books and articles about his discovery to spread ideas.
Snow invented an inhaler to regulate the dose.
Queen Victoria helped chloroform to be accepted by undergoing labour using it.
198
Why did some doctors oppose the use of chloroform?
It caused swearing, erotic dreams.
Called it ‘a decoy of Satan’.
Didn’t know what it does to the body.
199
Who died in 1848 due to chloroform and why was this important?
15-year-old Hannah Greener.
People were worried about the use of chloroform afterwards.
200
What was the world’s first effective local anaesthetic agent?
Cocaine
201
When was novocaine first discovered?
1905
202
What did Lister discover in 1867?
Antiseptics to tackle infections after reading Pasteur’s work and believing that bacteria must be getting into open wounds.
203
What did Lister do after he developed antiseptics in 1867?
Insisted that doctors and nurses wash their hands with carbolic acid before operations to avoid infection from their hands getting into wounds.
Developed a carbolic spray to kill germs in the air around the operating table.
Invented an antiseptic ligature to tie up blood vessels and prevent blood loss.
Applied carbolic spray to breaks where bones had broken through the skin.
Used bandages which had been soaked in carbolic so wounds didn’t go gangrenous.
204
How did hospitals change towards the end of the breakthrough period?
More of them.
Well ventilated, more windows, larger rooms, separate isolation wards so infectious disease didn’t spread.
Nurses became more skilled at caring for patients.
Operating theatres and specialist departments emerged, improved engineering techniques meant more complex operations could take place.
Doctors received hands-on treatment.
More ordinary people could gain access to treatments either because wealthy donors supported hospitals or working people paid into a fund to cover the cost of treatments if needed.
Government took more of an important role in the establishment of hospitals - ordered that Poor Law infirmaries be built in 1867 for the poor, were separate from the workhouses, used taxes to pay for the care of the sick.
205
What was one of the first medicines made in the early 1900s and how did it happen?
Aspirin - painkiller and remedy for fevers.
Comes from willow bark which had been used as a medicine for centuries but no one knew why it worked. Developments in science enabled scientists to identify the exact chemical in willow bark that was beneficial, and then it was manufactured in huge quantities and marketed as aspirin.
206
What was Stage 1 in Fleming’s discovery of penicillin?
In 1928, he noticed mould on one of his Petri dishes, and around the mould, no bacteria remained. He then experimented with the mould on living cells. He discovered that if it was diluted, it killed bacteria without harming the cells. He make a list of the bacteria it killed and used it to treat a colleague’s eye infection. However, it didn’t seem to work on deeper infections, and took a long time to make enough penicillin. He published his findings in a medical journal, but no one thought his article was important - he hadn’t even used penicillin on animals to heal infections, so had no evidence of it being useful.
207
What was Stage 2 after Fleming’s discovery of penicillin?
In 1938, Florey and Chain realised Fleming’s discovery could be very effective, and tried to get funding from the English government, but only received £25. War was looking likely, and with no proof that penicillin could cure people, the government needed to spend money on other things. Florey asked America for money, and discovered penicillin helped mice recover from infections, but to treat one person, they’d need 3,000 times the amount - even large drug companies couldn’t afford to fund it. Florey and Chain began to grow penicillin in hospital bedpans by themselves, and by 1941, there was enough to test on one person. Albert Alexander had septicaemia, and would die anyway - penicillin worked, but they didn’t have enough, so Alexander died regardless.
208
What was Stage 3 after Fleming’s discovery of penicillin?
English factories were working flat-out on the war effort for WWII, and couldn’t be used to mass-produce penicillin. Florey went to America again. In 1941, America was attacked by the Japanese at Pearl Harbour, and entered the war. The American government realised penicillin’s potential for treating wounded soldiers, and made interest-free loans to US companies to buy the expensive equipment needed to produce it. Soon, British firms were also mass-producing penicillin, enough to treat the Allied wounded in D-Day in 1944 - over 2.3 million doses.
209
What was Stage 4 in the manufacture of penicillin after WWII?
Penicillin began to be manufactured and used by everyone, not just the armed forces. This took time, but antibiotics became more and more common in the 1950s and 60s. This gradually transformed the ‘wonder drug’ into an ordinary, everyday life-saver. After 1948, it became free on the NHS.
210
Who discovered the first magic bullet in 1909 and why was it given this name?
Paul Ehrlich
It homed in on and destroyed the bacteria that causes syphilis.
211
Why was the first magic bullet not useful?
Salvarsan 606 also killed the patient, not just the bacteria causing syphilis.
212
Who discovered the magic bullet Prontosil in the 1930s and how?
Gerhard Domagk found Prontosil and tested it on mice, discovering that it killed bacteria causing blood poisoning. He didn’t try it on people until his daughter developed blood poisoning, which would have been fatal. He gave her Prontosil and she was the first human cured by a chemical cure.
213
What was the important chemical in magic bullets Salvarsan 606 and Prontosil, and what did this lead to?
Sulphonamide
Drug companies then developed sulphonamide cures for diseases like pneumonia and scarlet fever and mass-produced huge quantities for general use.
214
What was the 1942 Beveridge report and what did it lead to?
Sir William Beveridge was tasked with the job of deciding what would be needed to improve people’s lives.
600,000 copies of it were sold, and it led to the NHS.
There was great enthusiasm for the NHS from the public, even if some doctors opposed the introduction of the service at first.
215
When was the NHS introduced and how many people saw a doctor for the first time?
1948
8 million people saw a doctor for the first time.
216
What was the 1911 National Insurance Act, and why was it important, but limited?
Provided help for workers who fell ill - before this, they had to carry on working or get no pay. When a worker fell ill, he received 10 shillings a week for up to 26 weeks and free medical care due to a government sickness fund.
Only included workers, not their families or the unemployed, elderly or anyone with a long-lasting illness.
217
When was the Ministry of Health set up and what was its role?
1919
A government department to have an overview of health throughout the country.
218
What were some features of the NHS when it was set up?
Free to everyone.
Paid for through taxes - everyone would pay National Insurance out of their wages to fund the NHS as well as old-age pensions, unemployment benefit, and sick pay.
Doctors, nurses, and medical workers would become government employees instead of charging the sick to create their wages.
NHS controls medical training and research.
Hospitals became centres of high-tech treatments - treatments and surgical procedures benefitted from having better trained professionals dealing with people’s health daily and improved equipment.
219
Why did the establishment of the NHS lead to improvements in the treatment of illness in the 20th century?
Provided free medical care for all through the payment of National Insurance (people accessed medical treatments without delay, no worry about the cost, universal healthcare provided, early treatment of illness more likely to be successful).
NHS continually improving to make sure treatments are successful (NHS funds and buys technology which improves treatment, trials new methods/techniques, oversees medical training and research).
NHS covers different groups in society (helps most vulnerable old and young with home visits, covers areas previously neglected like eyes/teeth/ears etc).
Creation of hospitals under the NHS (covers ambulance services increasing chances of survival, allowed doctors to specialise in different areas which builds knowledge/expertise, specialist wards, connects different areas of medicine together).
220
When was the first heart transplant and who carried it out?
Carried out in South Africa in 1967 by Christiaan Barnard
221
Who developed anaesthetics that could be injected into the bloodstream and when?
Helmuth Wesse in the 1930s
222
What is keyhole surgery?
Surgeons cut into the body through as small a hole as possible. The tools needed are inside an instrument called an endoscope, which is controlled by the surgeon using miniature cameras, fibre-optic cables and computers.
223
What is micro-surgery?
Micro-surgery has developed due to improvements in technology. Surgeons can now rejoin blood vessels and nerves, restoring the use of damaged and even severed limbs.
224
How many people are diagnosed with lung cancer each year and why?
Over 40,000 (second most common form on cancer).
Nearly 90% of cases are the result of smoking, in some cases of passive smoking.
225
Why is lung cancer so deadly (include spend)?
It’s extremely difficult to diagnose in it’s early stages.
Only 1 in 3 people live for as long as a year after diagnosis, and only 10% live for more than five years.
226
How has the government tried to prevent lung cancer?
Campaigns warn people of the extreme dangers of smoking through advertising the dangers, banning advertisements for cigarettes and making them as invisible as possible in shops.
New laws have made public places smoke free.
227
What are some treatments for lung cancer and how do they work?
Surgery - used since the 1930s but the majority of lung cancer sufferers have had other smoking-related health problems meaning surgery was too dangerous to use.
Radiotherapy - aims to kill cancer cells using beams of radiation.
Chemotherapy - used since the 1970s, involves using powerful chemical medicines to attack the cancer cells, although it can have significant side effects.
Immunotherapy - trials have been taking place to boost the immune system, so stop the cancer cells from resisting it.
228
What was the impact of the discovery of electron microscopes (1931)?
Allow people to see much smaller objects in much finer detail, making research into DNA easier.
229
When was the structure of DNA discovered by Crick and Watson and why was this important?
1953
This proved that this DNA structure was present in every human cell and showed how it passed on information from parents to children.
230
How did Crick and Watson discover the structure of DNA?
Crick and Watson made the discovery by trying methods and ideas others wouldn’t, they didn’t work alone - had a team of scientists with a wide range of skills and knowledge - and they had the latest and best equipment.
Most of the money they used came from the government, but industries also made a contribution.
231
When did the Human Genome Project begin, and what was its purpose?
1986
To identify the exact purpose of each gene in the human body, compiling a complete map of human DNA. They carried out their research in 18 countries.
232
Why can the discovery of DNA be considered more significant than Pasteur’s Germ Theory?
Germ theory affected medicine in lots of ways, but other illnesses have genetic causes. Since DNA was first described, scientists have identified the specific genes which pass on particular conditions and illnesses. This work holds out the hope that scientists can find ways of helping sufferers from these and many more genetic illnesses.
233
Why is using blood a good way of diagnosis?
Can reveal a person’s full history of viral infections from a single drop of blood.
Can benefit transplant patients, as viruses can reawaken after turning inactive in the patient or donor. These viruses can return in force when the patient’s immune system is suppressed with drugs to prevent them rejecting the organ. Standard tests often fail to pick up latent viruses before surgery, but this test could reveal their presence and alert doctors and patients to the danger.
234
What are some methods of diagnosis, and how do they work, in the modern period?
Microscopes - the electron microscope, invented in 1931, allows doctors to see much smaller objects in finer detail.
Endoscopes - a camera inside a flexible tube is passed into the body so doctors can see inside the body without surgery.
Scans and monitors - scan the body to identify cancers and other illnesses, widely used in screening for breast cancer to catch the disease as early as possible.
Nuclear medicine - radioactive elements are injected into the bloodstream where they track and diagnose changes in the body through disease.
235
What problems still remain for the government in regard to supporting people’s health?
NHS is overstretched.
Treatments are expensive.
Government spends lots of money treating illnesses that are preventable.
There are still some illnesses and diseases that we can’t prevent/treat.
236
What are some types of bacteria that penicillin kills?
Streptococci
Staphylococci
237
What was the life expectancy in the early 1900s?
Below 50.
238
How many babies died before their first birthday in 1899?
3 out of 20 births
