Paper 2 - American West 1835-1895 Flashcards
(169 cards)
1
Q
What were chiefs?
A
Leaders of Native Americans.
Always male.
Chosen for specific qualities, war chiefs/spiritual chiefs valued for their wisdom, leadership, or spiritual powers.
Came and went as their skills emerged.
2
Q
What were band chiefs?
A
Each band had a chief, chosen to guide the band.
Band chiefs and elders made up the tribe’s council and made key decisions for the tribe.
Everyone would give their opinion and be listened to.
Bands made their own decisions.
3
Q
What were warrior brotherhoods?
A
Several different brotherhoods within a tribe and young men joined after proving their bravery and skill in fighting with other tribes.
Trained young men fighting skills, taught them about the tribe’s beliefs and values.
Warrior brotherhoods weren’t under the command of the tribal council, meaning they may not always respect peace treaties.
Leading men from the brotherhoods were also invited to join a guard unit for the tribe, which led the yearly buffalo hunt, chose where the tribe should gather and make camp.
4
Q
What were famous chiefs?
A
Some chiefs became famous due to their leadership in wars against white Americans. However, not all people in their tribes agreed with them, or followed them.
Red Cloud - fought against white America.
Sitting Bull - rejected a peace treaty.
Crazy Horse - inspired many to fight.
5
Q
What were women in Plains Indian society?
A
Women couldn’t be chiefs and a successful man could have more than one wife in Plains Indian society. Women were responsible for feeding and clothing their families and for their family’s possessions. They were also responsible for processing buffalo hides and meat, turning them into products that could be traded. Women’s roles are highly respected.
6
Q
What was survival on the Plains like?
A
Hot summers and cold winters, plains were dry with little rain but thunder and lightning storms were common, making it difficult to grow anything.
7
Q
What was the importance of the buffalo?
A
Buffalo were hunted and every bit of the buffalo was used for food, fuel, clothing, and shelter. Plains Indians had a great respect for the buffalo and believed strongly that nature and land should be respected.
8
Q
What was the importance of horses?
A
Horses were essential to Plains Indians - they needed them to hunt buffalo and to travel across the plains in search for food. Horses were important for warfare and status within Plains Indian society. Men measured their wealth in horses.
9
Q
What were some beliefs about nature?
A
Plains Indians believed that everything in nature had a spirit. These spirits would sometimes help humans. Plains Indians believed that humans were a part of nature and should work with the spirits of nature rather than trying to tame nature to obey them.
They believed they could contact the spirit world through ‘vision quests’, guided by spirit animals, like spirit hawks or spirit foxes. Plains Indians also danced special ritual dances to enter the spirit world. It was also possible to work with spirits to charge up magic items, which they would wear to bring them luck in hunting or protection from weapons, including bullets.
10
Q
What were some beliefs about land?
A
Land was seen as sacred, especially the Black Hills. Some tribes farmed land, hunted, fished, gathered plants, and resources.
No one owned land as property and land weren’t things that could be bought or sold.
Hunting areas were agreed by tribes. Farming and mining was seen as disrespectful.
11
Q
What were some attitudes towards war?
A
Survival on the plains was so difficult that some tribes raided each other for resources. However, young men were very valuable so conflict was a last resort - didn’t want to lose valuable warriors. The raid would only go ahead if it looked like it would be successful. Only selected brotherhoods went on raids. A special type of fighting was called counting coups.
12
Q
What was Plains Indian society like?
A
Tribes lived on the Great Plains, made up of several bands.
Bands could be several hundred or just 20-30 people. Bands would meet at different times, which varied from tribe to tribe.
13
Q
What was the government’s policy towards the Plains Indians around 1830?
A
As more people moved to the USA, the demand to find land for them increased. They planned to move westwards, but this brought them into conflict with Plains Indians who lived on the Plains.
At first, the Federal Government did believe that Plains Indians had some rights to land because they’d lived there so long.
However, they felt it was wrong to give them the good land as they weren’t doing anything to improve it. White settlers were ploughing, mining, farming, cutting down trees to make the area a civilised settlement.
They wanted to control the movement of Plains Indians so that they could allow white Americans to settle in the area.
14
Q
What did the government decide to do in 1830 and what did this lead to?
A
- Keep white settlers and Plains Indians apart.
- Encourage Plains Indians to become more like white settlers.
This meant they created a permanent Indian frontier in 1834, and led to the 1830 Indian Removal Act.
15
Q
What was the 1830 Indian Removal Act?
A
President Jackson signed it, which put pressure on 46,000 Plains Indians to move from the East of America to new lands west of the Mississippi River.
They were promised that they wouldn’t have to give up this land in the future.
The Act said that Plains Indians that did move would be guaranteed protection from any white settlers and from other tribes.
This became known as the Indian Territory, which kept white settlers and Plains Indians apart.
16
Q
What were some problems with the creation of an Indian Territory?
A
Could disrupt the buffalo
Moved Plains Indians away from sacred lands
Native Americans didn’t believe in the ownership of land
May not have been able to maintain nomadic lifestyle
Disrupted hunting
Could have been seen as disrespectful and then led to conflict.
17
Q
What happened to the 1830 Indian Removal Act in 1834 and how did the terms change?
A
It became a permanent Indian frontier, and the law was called the Indian Trade and Intercourse Act.
Whites weren’t allowed to cross or settle on Plains Indian land.
Guns and alcohol weren’t allowed to be sold to Plains Indians and the army were placed along the Frontier.
The agreement suited the government because whites didn’t want the land in the Indian Territory (it was too difficult to settle on) so not many whites wanted to cross the area.
18
Q
Why did government policy towards Plains Indians change in the 1840s?
A
US gained territories in the west.
1845 - Texas became part of the USA.
1846 - Oregon became part of the USA.
1848 - California became part of the USA (gold was discovered there in 1849).
Indian territory was now in the middle of the USA, so if the government wants to encourage settlements in the new states, they need to change the terms of earlier agreements.
19
Q
How did migrants travel across state?
A
The journey west by sea was too expensive so migrants started to use trails, which the government encouraged. The government also used the army to protect migrants from Plains Indians. Whites could cross the Indian Territory.
20
Q
Why did the government pass the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act?
A
As whites could now cross the Indian Territory, it could increase tension between migrants and Plains Indians, be seen as disrespectful by the Plains Indians (particularly in areas of sacred importance), disrupt the buffalo further.
21
Q
What was the 1851 Indian Appropriations Act?
A
It have Plains Indians money to move onto reservations, an area of land ‘reserved’ for Plains Indians and managed by the government.
Some reservations also had hunting rights, so they could continue to hunt the buffalo.
Reservations were a way of controlling Plains Indians even more.
They were moved away from land that the government wanted for white people.
They reduced the amount of land that Plains Indians had for hunting as they wanted them to become farmers and be more like white Americans.
Conditions on the reservations were poor and Plains Indians started to become dependent on the government, and conflict continued to occur.
22
Q
What was manifest destiny?
A
The belief that white Americans had a God-given right to populate and civilise all areas of America from coast to coast.
23
Q
What were some reasons why white Americans wanted to move west?
A
1837 financial crisis caused many Eastern banks to collapse and businesses to fail, up to 25% unemployment, those who had a job faced wage cuts of up to 40%.
Population grew due to high immigration from Europe, overcrowding in the east, people were poor.
Land in the east was expensive due to overcrowding.
Many moved west in the hope of escaping religious intolerance.
24
Q
What were aspects of the west that attracted white Americans?
A
Gold was discovered in California in 1848, led to 100,000 leaving east in April 1849.
Gold prospectors needed equipment, food, drink and entertainment so people moved west to become shopkeepers, bartenders and traders.
Migrants were promised cheap or free farming land in Oregon and California, attracted people who were poor/jobless.
Successful crossings encouraged more people to migrate.
1841 US government provided $30,000 for an expedition to map the Oregon Trail and publish reports to help migrants get to Oregon.
Reports of how wonderful the west was reached the east.
John Fremont published influential reports about the Oregon Trail, convincing potential migrants that moving to Oregon was manageable.
Government set up boards of immigration, published maps and reports, provided protection for travellers by sending units of the US army to the west.
Even if men were unsuccessful in finding gold, many stayed and became farmers.
25
What was the 1843 ‘Great Emigration’ and why was it important?
900 people made the trip west using the Oregon Trail.
Proved that large numbers of people could make the journey.
This made more migrants make the journey west.
26
What were the main problems for early migrants?
Migrants were told not to start their journey until April to ensure that there was enough grass on the plains after winter to provide food for their animals.
Needed to make sure that they made their journey before winter otherwise they risked getting stuck in the mountains and freezing to death.
Needed to take enough food to live in for the entire journey and what they would need to set up home.
27
How did migrants protect themselves from Plains Indians?
Doubled their guard at night.
Made a wagon corral.
28
Why was water important and dangerous during the migration trails?
Migrants needed to stay near water at all times.
Cholera spread through the water.
29
What were some of the dangers of the first stage of migrants’ journey (prairie/grassland)?
Weather
Plains Indians
30
What were some of the dangers of the second stage of migrants’ journey (mountains)?
Terrain was difficult
Water and grass were scarce
Rocky terrain damaged wagons
31
How long did the journey take overall?
5 months (2,000 miles)
32
Why were oxen the best animals to pull wagons?
Were strong, obedient and able to live on the grass of the plains.
However, were slow and only travelled 3km per hour.
33
What were some features of wagon trains?
Ended up with 20 or more wagons.
Safest way to travel was to ensure that people within your ‘train’ had different skills: carpenter, hunter, fisherman, people who had medical skills.
34
How many people are believed to have died along the Oregon Trail?
20,000
35
Why did migrants demand greater protection from Native Americans when they were on the Oregon Trail?
There are few records of Native Americans attacking migrants, but the migrants were very fearful of this.
36
How many people were in the Donner Party?
300 migrants, 60 wagons
37
When did the Donner Party begin their crossing?
May 1846
Were well-equipped, but had more women, elderly people and children.
Led by Donner brothers.
38
Why did the Donner Party split up?
They reached Fort Bridger in July, and the group split. Around 80 migrants, including both Donner brothers, decided to try a new short-cut that left the Oregon Trail and cut about 550km off the established route. Lansford Hastings had written about it in a guidebook, but the migrants didn’t know that Hastings hadn’t used the short-cut himself - he simply thought it would work.
39
Why did the Donner Party’s short-cut not work?
It didn’t save time, and caused delay after delay. The terrain was rugged and rocky, had steep slopes and canyons, with stretches of desert with no water or grass. Arguments raged constantly within the group as to whether they should keep going or turn back. It was mid-October when the Donner Party reached the Sierra Nevada mountains.
40
What happened when the Donner Party reached the Sierra Nevada mountains?
At the start of November, the exhausted oxen dragged the wagons high into the mountains, but before they could make it over the pass, snow storms trapped the Donner Party. Their livestock died and skin their food ran out. The first migrant died of starvation on 15th December. When rescuers from California reached the party in February, only half of the original 80 were alive - most of them had only survived by eating those that had died.
41
Why did the Mormons want to migrate west?
The Mormons were a religious group that was shunned by other Christians due to some of their practices, such as polygamy. They were forced to move from one state to another, with opposition to them growing wherever they went. In 1845, they were ordered to leave Illinois after rioters murdered their leader, Joseph Smith.
42
Where did the Mormons head to and why did they choose this destination?
They were heading south of the Oregon Trail to Salt Lake Valley - it was outside of US territory so they could escape persecution.
43
What happened during the first stage of the Mormons’ journey?
They didn’t complete their first stage until June. They made the decision to stay in Omaha until next spring.
44
Why did leadership mean the Mormons’ migration was successful?
Brigham Young decided to wait in Omaha a year before migrating west.
Young successfully led the advance party and planned carefully for the second crossing.
He consulted trail guides and explorers to find out as much as he could about Salt Lake Valley.
Young taught migrants how to form their wagons into a circle at night to protect livestock.
45
Why did organisation mean the Mormons’ migration was successful?
April 1847 a small advance party set off for Salt Lake Valley, and cleared paths, located water sources, prepared river crossings and even planted crops, making later and larger migrations successful.
Young organised a count of all the Mormons and the wagons they had, used this to plan the logistics of the migration and what they would need to survive.
Regular resting places were planned to test people and livestock.
Mormons built irrigation systems so Salt Lake Valley had freshwater to grow crops. As new settlements developed, each one was designed to produce particular products (food/crops/timber) - Young made sure each settlement had the skills to flourish.
46
Why did religion mean the Mormons’ migration was successful?
Believed that Young was God’s prophet and therefore obeyed him completely.
Young decided that the Church owned all the land so that the community worked together for the good of everyone.
Each settlement that developed had a Church leader with authority over everything.
47
Why did discipline mean the Mormons’ migration was successful?
Migrants were given specific roles which they stayed completely committed to.
They were divided into manageable groups, each with a leader, meaning even if groups were separated on their journey, everyone would still know what to do.
Young insisted on street discipline, as a result, there weren’t any arguments and splits.
Each group had the right mix of skills to survive.
48
How did the government encourage migration further?
Mapped out safe routes for migrants.
Included places for water/rest.
Provisions/ferry crossings.
Invested $30,000 - expeditioners mapped out the first route.
Published reports/success stories, so encouraged more to migrate.
49
How many people had migrated across the Oregon Trail by 1869?
400,000
50
What were the main problems with farming that white settlers faced?
The plains had very low rainfall, and few rivers/streams.
The plains were too dry for crops, not enough water for livestock.
Crops shrivelled in the summer heat and were destroyed by storms and fires.
No timber for housing/fences, no wood to burn for cooking/heating.
No wood meant settlers had to burn buffalo chips as fuel, needed to burn lots and they burnt very quickly.
Plains had extreme climates.
Living conditions in extreme weather was very difficult as houses were made from sod.
Few trees on the plains, and any saplings were killed by fires.
Digging deep wells was expensive, and winching enough water up every day was hard work.
Swarms of grasshoppers could destroy crops/grass/wool on sheep’s backs.
Ploughing was difficult due to deep tangled grass roots, which broke normal ploughs.
51
What was a sod-buster?
A heavy plough pulled by oxen which made ploughing the dry soil easier.
52
Why did the government introduce the Fort Laramie Treaty 1851?
Tensions between white settlers and Plains Indians were high:
Many misunderstandings about Plains Indians culture.
Fear of being attacked/brutal punishments fuelled the idea that Plains Indians weren’t civilised.
White settlers demanded the government build forts to protect migrants.
White settlers travelling through sacred lands was seen as disrespectful.
Migration disturbed the buffalo, threatening Plains Indians’ way of life, white settlers didn’t hunt carefully, oxen used by settlers led to a shortage of grass, and buffalo herds decreased.
Scarce resources led to Native Americans raiding other tribes for food, horses, people, some stole cows/horses from migrants, fuelling mistrust, increasing demands for better protection. Also whites were angered by Plains Indians who begged for supplies.
Whites believed they were superior and should occupy all of America so it was civilised.
53
What were some problems with the Plains Indian council regarding the Fort Laramie Treaty 1851?
Choosing council representatives - government wanted each tribe to name a chief to represent the whole tribe, Plains Indians didn’t work that way (Sioux Tribe especially struggled).
Getting representatives from all the tribes - large numbers of tribes were represented, some didn’t attend. Most Plains Indians had no interest in the council, they went for government food and free gifts.
Agreeing boundaries - government wanted to pin precise boundaries to each tribe’s land so warring tribes would be apart, but Plains Indians didn’t use land this way, travelled far to find food and resources, some tribes were allies so travelled together. Idea of boundaries wouldn’t work and wasn’t accepted.
Translation difficulties - treaty was written in English, but weren’t enough translators for the representatives to understand it - didn’t know what they were signing.
54
What did the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty state Plains Indians would do?
End fighting between tribes.
Allow migrants to pass through lands safely.
Permit surveyors from railroad companies to enter the lands in safety.
Allow the government to build roads through their lands and construct army posts.
Pay compensation if any individuals from their tribe broke the Treaty terms.
Remain in designated areas.
55
What did the 1851 Fort Laramie Treaty state the US government would do?
Protect Plains Indians from white Americans.
Pay the tribes an annuity of $50,000 as long as the terms of the Treaty were kept.
56
What were the problems and significance of the Treaty?
Forced Plains Indians into a particular area of territory.
Treaty went against previous laws which said that white settlers shouldn’t enter the Indian Frontier (government went back on their word).
As long as tribes agreed to terms, they’d be paid in food and products, however, this meant they would become dependent on the government.
Government were trying to get Plains Indians to become more like white settlers.
57
What were some consequences of Fort Laramie?
Plains Indians became more dependent on the government.
Increased tension, as Plains Indians’ beliefs/lifestyles were undermined.
Increased tension due to lack of resources (more fighting/raids).
Buffalo numbers decreased due to increased migration and railroads.
More migration as migrants were now guaranteed safe passage.
More Plains Indians went on reservations willingly.
58
What were some features of the Gold Rush 1849?
Gold was first found in California.
By 1855, 300,000 migrants had moved across.
In April 1849, 100,000 migrants alone moved.
Some migrants got rich, some stayed and became farmers, increased settlements (which became lawless places).
59
What was ‘staking a claim’?
The law set out what amount of land was fair for each prospector to claim and gave him the rights to any gold he found there.
60
What was ‘claim jumping’?
If a claim looked promising, other men tried to steal it.
61
What was ‘salting a claim’?
Scattering a few flakes of gold in a worthless claim, then conning an inexperienced migrant into buying it.
62
What were ‘road agents’?
People who waited outside camps to rob prospectors.
63
What were some consequences of the 1849 Gold Rush?
There were prostitutes and people selling alcohol in mining camps (led to drunken fights between men who formed attachments to the same woman) and many people had guns.
Prospectors came from all over the world so mining camps were mixed ethnicities and from different religions (led to tension/triggered violence).
By mid-1850, many prospectors hadn’t found anything/‘worked out’ their claims and moved in to mine underground funded by rich investors (ordinary people didn’t have skills/investment to mine this way so were employed by mining companies, moved to other territories to find gold, looked for jobs, mainly in San Francisco).
Thousands of disappointed prospectors who went to San Francisco couldn’t find work, causing a crime wave in 1851, rival gangs took control of city areas, law officers ineffective due to scale of problem and corruption, reach such a point that gang members would stroll into saloons/kill people/take money.
Racism against Chinese immigrants increased, they were prevented from working new claims, still made money by working hard leading to white Americans robbing them/destroying camps and even murdering them. 20,000 Chinese migrants arrived in California following a famine in China 1852.
64
Why was it difficult to manage law and order in the territories?
When a territory reached 60,000 people, it could apply to be a state and have its own state government and legal system.
Until then, it was under federal government’s control.
They appointed governors and marshals but it was difficult to enforce law and order.
Once a territory had 5,000 people, it could elect a sheriff, chosen for their ability to calm people down and break up fights.
65
Why did sheriffs mean it was difficult to enforce law and order in the west?
Sheriffs only had very little legal training, is they didn’t always act fairly, often favouring their friends over other people, which increased tension.
66
Why did geographical factors mean it was difficult to enforce law and order in the west?
Territories were huge areas with scattered settlements - even counties were often very large (a Kansas sheriff’s country typically covered 200,000km squared).
Before the late 1860s, horseback was the fastest way of travel, so news of trouble took a long time for officers to hear and then reach. Even with deputies, there weren’t enough law officers for effective law enforcement.
67
Why did lack of investment mean it was difficult to enforce law and order in the west?
Federal government didn’t spend much on the territories, so law enforcement was badly paid.
As a result, it was hard to recruit law officers and many were corrupt - accepting money from criminals to avoid arrest, or taking a cut from criminal activities.
State government was also racist.
68
Why did mining camps mean it was difficult to enforce law and order in the west?
Mining communities didn’t have easy access to a legal system of judges and courts in order to settle disputes.
Mining communities got together to agree and write down the rules that would govern mining in their district.
A recorder was chosen to record all the claims that were made and who had claimed them.
The community also created its own court, with a respected community member chosen to judge the disputes, and juries were often appointed too.
69
Why did vigilante committees mean it was difficult to enforce law and order in the west?
Although San Francisco had a legal system, many townspeople believed the courts were corrupt.
The committee of around 200 men captured suspected criminals, tried them and punished those found guilty, and trials were often unfair.
They could be turned over to law enforcement officials for hanging, which led to lynchings.
Once they felt order had been restored, they disbanded.
70
What effect did the American Civil War have on the development of the west?
Before 1860, migrants mainly moved west due to the discovery of gold and success of the Oregon Trail.
600,000 people died.
400,000 people died.
The south was destroyed.
Slaves were freed during the war.
A massive period of reconstruction followed.
The economic and social problems of the south encouraged more people to move to the west - many were ex-soldiers or former slaves.
Government supported their move by introducing 2 new laws (Homestead Act 1862 and Pacific Railroad Act 1862).
71
What did the 1862 Homestead Act state?
Public land would be divided into homesteads and given to people for $30. It would cost $10 to file a claim. Plots were 160 acres and could be ‘proven up’ if lived in for 5 years.
72
Who could file a claim for a homestead?
Anyone who was the head of a family or if single (over 21), ex-soldiers (if they were younger), women and ex-slaves could apply. Indians couldn’t.
73
What were the conditions of homestead plots?
People had to live and work on the land themselves - the government wanted to prevent big companies from buying lots of plots.
74
What could homesteaders do after 5 years?
They could own their homestead outright for $30, had to have built a house and planted 5 acres of crops. This was called ‘proving up’.
75
What were some achievements of the Homestead Act 1862?
80 million acres of land was settled in total due to this act - by 1876, 6 million acres of land had been settled.
Encouraged immigration from Europe (half of Nebraska were recent immigrants).
More states were formed, the population grew (Nebraska was mainly formed from homesteads).
76
What problems still remained after the Homestead Act 1862?
Difficult to ‘prove up’ as farming was so difficult (60% of homesteads weren’t ‘proven up’).
Rick landowners exploited the law by making employees make claims, then taking over, or once homesteaders couldn’t ‘prove up’, businesses would buy the land off them for cheaper.
77
What was the 1873 Timber and Culture Act?
Allowed homesteaders to claim a further 160 acres of land, as long as they promised to plant trees on a quarter of it. Trees and wood provided shelter, protection, and fuel.
This supported homesteaders a bad encouraged more of them to stay and work the land.
78
What 3 inventions helped homesteaders to settle?
Self-Governing Windmill 1854 (and Steel Blades 1870) - pumped water out of the ground to help crops grow, steel blades made windmills stronger.
Barbed Wire 1874 - used to fence-off crops and protect against animals.
Sulky Plough 1875 - ploughs used to plough up tough weeds.
79
How many Mormons migrated between 1847 and 1869?
70,000
80
What was the aim of the Pacific Railroad Act 1862?
Make migration to the west easier and quicker, and provide incentive for transcontinental railroad building.
Support the new settlements that had formed.
81
How would the government support the railroad companies with the Pacific Railroad Act?
The Act committed the US government to:
‘Extinguish’ any rights Plains Indians might have to land on the route.
Loan each company $16,000 for every mile of track laid ($48,000 for mountains).
Granted each company large sections of public land along the railroad for them to sell.
82
How did the government plan to use the railroads to settle the west?
Railroads made migration to the west much easier and quicker, promoted the development of towns, boosted the sale of land to settlers, enabled industrial centres of the north to connect to the developing agricultural areas of the west.
83
What was built alongside the railroad tracks?
The first transcontinental electric telegraph.
84
How did the railroads affect Plains Indians?
Buffalo were killed during the construction and by running steam trains, fences blocked buffalo movements.
Any rights to land were taken away.
Disrespectful to sacred lands.
Can’t maintain nomadic lifestyle, forced into reservations.
Companies given 40 million acres of land to settle, reduced Plains Indians land.
85
How did the railroads affect homesteaders?
Made travel easier.
Telegraph improved communication.
More towns were created, and people travelled to sell crops.
Could visit relatives.
Could order manufactured goods - Sears Roebuck and Co.
Mennonites came from Russia, persuaded by railroad agents, started to grow Red Turkey Wheat.
86
What was Red Turkey Wheat?
Mennonites brought it from Russia in 1873, it could cope with extreme temperatures. Grew a surplus and extra crops to make sure they would have enough.
87
How did the railroads affect law and order?
Created tension and lawlessness.
Cow towns were the worst.
Cowboys carried weapons and drank.
Cowboys had violent payday celebrations.
Private detectives were sometimes used as police were useless and corrupt.
88
How much land was settled as a result of the Pacific Railroad Act 1862?
200 million acres
89
What were cowboys’ pay-day celebrations?
They would load cows onto railroad wagons and then be paid their wages.
They would then go out to celebrate and cause great trouble.
There were regular gunfights and murders.
Pay-day celebrations attracted saloons and brothels into towns, and gamblers, swindlers, prostitutes and outlaws all frequented these towns.
Often spent all their money in town and had to borrow money to get back to Texas to find work until the next trail next spring.
90
What happened when a jail was constructed in Abilene (one of the worst cow towns in Kansas?
Cowboys tore it down
91
What happened to Thomas Smith, town marshal of Abilene?
A sign banning guns was so badly shot full of holes, the words couldn’t be read, and Smith (who banned guns) was shot, then killed with an axe by a murderer he was trying to arrest.
92
What happened when army deserters, ex-soldiers, and outlaws headed west after the Civil War?
They were out of control.
Some were traumatised by the war, unable to find work, and resentful to the US government as they lost the war.
These gangs terrified local people and law officers were too weak to be able to deal with them effectively.
93
Who were the Reno Gang and what did they do?
A group of Civil War deserters, con-men and thieves who terrorised communities in the west, and bribed officials to avoid arrest.
In 1866 they stole $16,000 from a safe during a train robbery.
Pinkerton’s National Detective Agency caught John Reno, but the gang struck again in 1867 and 1886.
A fourth robbery got them $96,000.
A member was caught during their fifth, and turned in the others for a reduced sentence. A vigilante committee lynched them before the detective agency could arrest them.
94
What was the cattle industry like before the Civil War?
Texan cowboys herded cows in long drives along cattle trails.
A cattle disease called Texas Fever had a major impact on cattle drives as if a cow mixed with it ate the same grass as a cow from Texas, it caught the disease and died.
Farmers in Missouri and Southern Kansas didn’t allow cattle drives from Texas onto their land.
In 1855, Missouri farmers blocked the drives with vigilante committees.
By 1859, both Missouri and Kansas farmers introduced a quarantine law which said Texas cattle weren’t allowed to enter Missouri.
95
What was the cattle industry like after the Civil War?
Texas farmers were still prevented from entering Missouri, but Kansas relaxed their laws in 1867, so Texas cattle could enter Kansas but only if they stayed west of where the farmers had settled.
Price for cattle in south had decreased dramatically to $5 and increased in the north to $40.
Texas farmers needed to find a way of getting cattle from the south to the north to get a good price, but needed to avoid restrictions from Texas Fever.
The 1870s saw a beef bonanza due to the cowboys.
96
What problem did McCoy solve?
Spotted potential in Abilene as a new transit point for cattle drives. The Kansas Pacific Railroad was due to reach Abilene in 1867 as it was in the west of Kansas (and therefore not restricted by the 1867 law).
97
What did McCoy do?
He bought 450 acres of land (at $5 per acre) and built large stockyards where cattle could be safely kept. He negotiated with the Kansas Pacific Railroad for a depot to be built on a side track where 100 railway cars could be loaded and he constructed a hotel. He arranged for the Chisholm Trail to be marked out through Indian Territory and extended from where it ended in Wichita, Kansas, to Abilene.
98
How successful was McCoy?
He spent $5,000 marketing his new venture and sent riders down to Texas to tell the cattlemen there about Abilene, promising a safe trail up from Texas and a great opportunity for profit at the end. It was an outstanding success - 35,000 cattle were driven along the Chisholm Trail to Abilene by the end of 1867 and 3 million between 1867 and 1872.
99
What problem did Goodnight and Loving solve?
They realised the potential of driving the cattle straight to the new towns and reservations, avoiding the time and the hazards of the long drive.
100
What did Goodnight and Loving do?
They drove 18 cowboys and 2,000 cattle through hostile Indian territory to reach an Indian reservation (who were close to starvation). They sold 800 cattle for $12,000, nearly four times as much as they would have done in Texas. They then sold the remaining cattle to John Iliff.
101
How successful were Goodnight and Loving?
In 1867, Loving was injured in an Indian attack and died from his wounds. However, Goodnight continued to drive cattle north to mining towns and reservations. His ranch expanded to one million acres.
102
What problem did Iliff solve?
In 1861, Colorado Territory had been created following a gold rush in the Colorado Rocky Mountains. Denver City, right at the western edge of the plains grew rapidly, selling supplies to gold prospectors. This meant that there was great demand for meat. However, Denver had no railroad connection (until 1870) and it was difficult and expensive to transport supplies there.
103
What did Iliff do?
Iliff spotted the opportunity in the problem: if he could fatten his new herd up on the grass of the plains, he would be able to sell beef for a good price to the mining towns with none of the expense and difficulty of the long drives.
In 1866, Iliff bought land for a ranch near Denver. By 1870, he had built up a huge herd in the Colorado Plains - 26,000 cattle. He had extended his original ranch to cover 16,000 acres of land northwards towards Cheyenne, using the Homestead Act to build up a patchwork of claims.
104
How successful was Iliff?
Became Denver’s first millionaire - selling beef to the mining towns, to trams building the Union Pacific Railroad, to the government for Plains Indians reservations. In 1872, won a contract to provide beef to a reservation of 7,000 Sioux Indians.
He had raised the majority of his herd on the plains rather than relying on only cattle driven up from Texas. This was the start of a new phase in the cattle industry - ranching in the open range of the Great Plains.
105
What were some hazards that cowboys faced on long drives?
Dust.
Easily scared cattle into a stampede.
Swimming cattle across rivers.
Dealing with snakes and other wild animals.
Negotiating permission with Plains Indians.
Fending off attacks from Plains Indians and outlaws.
Guarding against theft.
106
How did cowboys manage the 3-4 months of the long drive?
Average crew was 11 men.
Often involved 3,000 cattle.
Worked in outfits led by a trail boss, who was responsible for the speed the herd moved at and where camp would be at night.
Outfit included a chuck wagon, which transported food, water, equipment, and a cook.
Wrangler cared for horses.
Travelled 15-20 miles per day.
107
How did cowboys on ranches work?
Open Range - during winter, cattle from different ranches would roam freely and mix together.
Round-Up - cowboys from different ranches would work together in spring to ‘round-up’ the cattle and separate them into their different owners. New calves would also be branded.
Strict rules for living on ranches, extreme weather, lived with rancher and his family or in a bunkhouse with other ranchers. Lived a more comfortable life that on long drives.
108
Why did land cause conflict between homesteaders and ranchers?
Ranchers felt threatened when homesteaders spread into where the ranchers were based.
109
Why did cattle cause conflict between homesteaders and ranchers?
Cows strayed onto fields and started to eat the crops grown by the homesteaders. Farming was difficult anyway, so homesteaders were really annoyed by this. Ranchers said that their cattle had the right to roam where they wanted.
110
Why did responsibility cause conflict between homesteaders and ranchers?
There was lots of tension between homesteaders and ranchers over who had overall responsibility. Federal and local law enforcement didn’t make this responsibility clear.
111
Why did homesteaders’ actions cause conflict between homesteaders and ranchers?
They wanted to use public land to herd sheep but this left cows with nothing to eat. They also said that sheep spread disease. Cattle ranchers started to fence off their land, but homesteaders would cut them down. When disputes went to court, cattle ranchers generally won.
112
How did the 1862 Homestead Act impact on the way of life of Plains Indians?
As more people settled, it was difficult for Plains Indians to maintain a nomadic life.
Homesteaders took the better land, left Plains Indians with poor, infertile land. Left Plains Indians in poverty, pushed onto reservations, dependency on the government.
Reduced buffalo numbers (lost land and hunted), difficult to follow traditional customs.
113
How did the 1848 discovery of gold impact on the way of life of Plains Indians?
More people crossed sacred Plains Indian land (Montana, Bozeman Trail).
Mining was seen as disrespectful and would disturb spirits, causing tension, believed it would disrupt the link between tribes and spirits, and miners brought new diseases to the west.
114
How did the cattle industry impact on the way of life of Plains Indians?
Cattle drives disturbed buffalo migration, increased competition for grass, fenced-off ranches also blocked grass for pasture.
Buffalo numbers decreased so Plains Indians were more likely to move onto reservations as they were unable to hunt.
Unable to maintain traditional practices.
115
Why did Plains Indians agree to give up or reduce their lands into a reservation cerca 1870?
The government guaranteed that the Plains Indians wouldn’t lose any more land.
They would be protected from attacks by white people.
Given yearly payments (money, food, livestock, clothing, farming equipment).
116
What was the impact of reservations on Plains Indians?
Virtually prisoners.
Poor conditions.
Farming was impossible.
Became dependent upon government handouts.
Badly treated by dishonest agents.
Unable to resist, unable to hunt for themselves.
Power of the chiefs weakened.
Government took control of legal matters, justice, law and order.
Ceremonial dances/festivals banned.
Children taken from parents (against will of parents) to be educated (not allowed to speak their own language, military respect).
117
What were conditions like on reservation?
Inadequate food rations.
Unavailable medical treatment.
People punished for offences without trial, individuals sometimes murdered.
Poor land that white settlers didn’t want, couldn’t feed themselves, dependent on government.
Size of reservations sometimes reduced as white settlers complained.
Sometimes enemy tribes were placed on the same reservation.
Away from sacred lands.
Education in English, taught Christianity, learnt American values.
118
Why did the Dakota Sioux rebel (Little Crow’s War 1862)?
They gave up 24 million acres of land for a payment of $1.4 million as compensation, and would be given $80,000 annually in cash and provisions.
They’d built up debts before moving, and are supposed to pay back $200,000 of this debt, but refused so the government used this as an excuse not to pay the $1.4 million and delay paying the annual payment.
Reservation couldn’t produce enough food, and were punished for leaving to hunt by being refused their annual payment. Warrior brotherhoods would raid to capture resources and break into Agency storehouses.
Reservation agents withheld more annual payments, making them pay high prices for inedible, rotting food.
New settlers began to take over other pieces of reservation land.
In 1858, they were made to sign away half their reservation in return for the debts they’d not paid.
In 1862, they became desperate, crops failed, government’s payments were late, people ate grass.
119
What happened during Little Crow’s War in 1862?
US army was fighting in Civil War at the time. Dakota Sioux thought it was the right time to take back what was rightfully theirs. In August 1862, they took food and provisions from the Agency’s warehouse and distributed it to starving people, then burned down Agency buildings. They attacked settlers’ towns and army forts.
Young warriors had little respect for the decision that their Chiefs had made to sign away their lands. Little Crow didn’t think it was right to kill people who were no threat, but 600 settlers and US soldiers were killed.
When troops arrived, Little Crow and his followers fled into Dakota.
120
What were the results of the 1862 Little Crow’s War?
In October 1862, 2,000 Sioux were captured or had surrendered. 400 Dakota Sioux were eventually put on trial. Most were sentenced to death without any evidence of their guilt. President Lincoln said only those proven to be guilty of rape or murder should be executed - 38 men in total were executed.
Rest of the Dakota Sioux were moved to the Crow Creek Reservation. It was an isolated reservation and the lands were dry. Many starved to death during the first winter, some were moved to Nebraska.
Government offered bounties for the scalps of any Dakota Sioux that were found in hiding. Little Crow and his son were found by a hunter, shot, scalped, and decapitated.
121
Why did the Arapaho and Cheyenne tribes rebel (Sand Creek Massacre 1864)?
In 1861, Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes agreed to go onto reservations (Treaty of Fort Wise). The Treaty was rejected by young warriors known as Dog Soldiers. They remained on their own lands, saying that they’d not agreed or signed the Treaty. Conflicts between Dog Soldiers and prospectors were frequent. These raids went on for 3 years.
122
What happened during the Sand Creek Massacre 1864?
After 3 years, Black Kettle (Cheyenne Chief) tried to reach an agreement with government officials and army commanders. Black Kettle, believing he was under army protection, set up camp at Sand Creek. The territory’s governor (John Evans) was determined to ‘kill and destroy’ all hostile Indians. He appointed Colonel Chivington to do the job.
29th November 1864, Colonel Chivington was sent to raid Black Kettle’s camp, which surrendered to him (Black Kettle thought he was under army protection) but his men massacred 130 men, women, children, and babies. They scalped their victims and took body parts to be displayed in local saloons.
Black Kettle escaped, sent news of the massacre to other tribes. Dog Soldiers thought they’d been right all along. It proved white Americans mustn’t be trusted and should be fought. Forts were attacked, many white settlers killed.
123
What were the results of the Sand Creek Massacre 1864?
Government couldn’t fight the tribes (still recovering from Civil War) so agreed to a new treaty. In 1865, it was agreed that Cheyenne and Arapaho tribes would move to a large reservation and a generous payment would be paid to the survivors of the massacre.
As soon as the Civil War was over, the government backed out. A new 1867 treaty said the tribes should be moved to a reservation half the size of the one they’d been promised. Were allowed to hunt buffalo in their own grounds. Had to keep away from white settlers and no payments were made to survivors.
124
Why did the Lakota Sioux rebel (Red Cloud’s War 1866-68)?
When gold was discovered in Montana in 1862, Sioux hunting grounds were crossed by prospectors (2,000 people crossed Bozeman Trail despite attacks from angry Sioux).
By crossing the Bozeman Trail, settlers were breaking the Fort Laramie Treaty (which protected Plains Indians), so in 1866, the government called a council to discuss a new treaty, Red Cloud attended. Before it began, Red Cloud discovered the army had already bought materials to build forts along the Bozeman Trail. He knew what had happened to Little Crow and thought it was proof the government couldn’t be trusted. He decided to fight.
125
What happened during the Red Cloud’s War 1866-68?
A 2 year fight where the Lakota Sioux tried to prevent the Bozeman Trail from being used. They attacked soldiers and other workers. Other Sioux leaders joined the fight including Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse. In total, 3,000 Plains Indians fought 700 US soldiers. In December 1866, men sent out to cut wood at a new fort were attacked. Captain William Fetterman led a group of 80 cavalrymen to protect them. However, Lakota Sioux sent a few scouts out who deliberately got spotted by the cavalry who then followed them into an ambush. All of Fetterman’s men were killed (became known as Fetterman’s Trap).
126
What were the results of the Red Cloud’s War 1866-68?
Lakota Sioux surrounded a fort on the Bozeman Trail so no travellers could move along it. They were successful.
127
Why did the government issue a second Fort Laramie Treaty?
Conflicts like Little Crow’s War, Sand Creek Massacre, and Red Cloud’s War proved that government policy towards Plains Indians wasn’t working.
128
What did the Second Fort Laramie Treaty 1868 state?
US government closed the Bozeman Trail, however they found another route into the gold fields, so didn’t need it anyway.
Red Cloud agreed to take his people to a reservation in Dakota.
The Treaty agreed that this reservation would be the Great Sioux Reservation and for exclusive use of the Sioux nation.
However not all chiefs agreed to this, leading to further conflicts like Little Big Horn.
After this point, government said any Plains Indians who refused to enter reservations or follow government instructions will be seen as the enemy and attacked.
129
How did President Grant’s 1868 ‘Peace Policy’ aim to calm tensions by improving the management of the reservations?
A budget of $2 million was allocated to ensure Indians already living in reservations were properly taken care of.
Ely Parker (American Indian) was appointed as the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. He was to put forward recommendations on how the policy of reservations should be carried out.
Replace corrupt reservation agents (usually with religious men, like Quakers).
130
How did wind pumps (1854/80) improve farming?
In 1854, Daniel Halliday developed a wind pump with a windmill that would swing round automatically as the wind changed direction (plains had very strong winds that frequently changed direction). Wooden windmills often failed to stand up in winter storms, and needed piling every few days at the top of the towers.
Groundwater was over 100 metres down in some areas.
By the 1880s, efficient all-metal wind pumps that needed oiling once per year at ground level had been developed. Pumping power increased by making larger blades, setting them on high towers. Strength was added by using steel instead of wood.
131
How did dry farming (1879) improve farming?
Experimental technique that aimed to conserve water in the soil (developed by Hardy Webster Campbell, who started homesteading in Dakota Territory). It prepared soil so it trapped rainwater under the surface. Campbell’s techniques promoted strong root growth by crops, meaning they could access more water in the soil. A series of severe droughts in the 1890s stopped it becoming widespread for a while.
132
How did barbed wire (1874) improve farming?
As timber was scarce, it was a cheap and effective way for farmers to fence off their claims and protect their crops/property from roaming livestock.
Through the 1880s, cattle ranches began to use barbed wire to keep their livestock in particular areas.
By then, problems of it rusting quickly and breaking had been fixed by applying a coating to the wire.
New production methods also reduced its cost.
133
How did mechanisation improve farming?
Dry farming needed soil to be ploughed very deeply so what rain there was went deep into the soil.
Improved steel ploughs were developed that could be set at the right depth for this.
Seeds needed to be planted deeply, seed drills were developed - they were drawn behind a horse and automatically planted seeds at the correct depth.
Made farming faster, more efficient, more productive. Farmers could farm larger areas, so successful homesteads expanded.
Strengthened connection between industry and farming. Manufacturers helped farmers become more successful, successful farmers bought more industrial products, which boosted US economy.
134
How did the ‘Great Die-Up’ in winter 1886-87 affect the cattle industry?
Lost lots of cattle, 15% of herds perished and ranchers’ power and influence was shaken.
Price of beef fell and farmers couldn’t keep their herds throughout winter on an open range (area was too large).
Smaller ranches coped better, and became more popular.
135
What were the advantages to smaller ranches (most of which emerged after the ‘Great Die-Up’ 1886-87)?
Smaller herds could easily be found when snows closed in and then were brought closer to the ranch buildings, where there was shelter and food.
Easier to provide water to the herd during droughts, using wind pumps to draw up water.
Easier to guards, more control over rustling.
Smaller herds reduced the supply of beef and higher quality meat could be sold for higher prices (enabled cattlemen to be profitable again).
After 1887, ranchers moved to producing high quality meat by buying pure-blooded breeds of cows. They couldn’t wander freely as breeding had to be managed, so ranchers fenced off their land with barbed wire.
136
How did the ‘Great Die-Up’ 1886-87 impact homesteaders?
Some ranchers were unable to respond to the new changes and when they went bankrupt, they moved east, allowing homesteaders to move in.
Homesteaders put up fences to protect their own property and any new land gained.
137
How did the end of the open range affect cowboys?
Less demand for cowboys, so those that remained were employed as ranch hands.
138
What was the 1879 Exoduster movement?
When the northern anti-slavery states won the Civil War in 1865, 4 million slaves were freed across the USA. However, many whites in southern states couldn’t accept that black Americans should be free. They did everything they could to keep black Americans from becoming independent. They used violence and intimidation to stop black Americans voting, and also refused to sell land to black Americans.
Consequently, some black Americans decided to move to the west and take up homesteads to their own land. A former slave called Benjamin Singleton pioneered the move to Kansas in 1873. He helped create the foundations for an extraordinary, large-scale migration of black Americans to Kansas in 1879.
139
What were some impacts of the 1879 Exoduster movement?
By 1880, 43,107 black Americans were in Kansas, settling 81 km squared of land.
Other settlers had already taken the best land, some had come to Kansas believing the land would be free and couldn’t afford the fee to take up their claims.
Many Exoduster had travelled through areas affected by yellow fever, and were dangerously ill. Kansas’ governor set up an association to help the migrants, giving them colonies to live in and some state funding to help them.
Huge opposition to the Exodusters in the southern states. White settlers in Kansas though it was wrong that the state government should help the Exodusters and not them.
Exoduster migrants typically remained poorer than the white migrants to Kansas through 1880s and 1890s.
140
What were the 7 Oklahoma Land Rushes (1889-95)
In 1889, the US government decided to open up the middle section of Indian Territory for white settlement. It was divided up by government surveyors into 160-acre sections, and at 12 noon 22nd April 1889, the area would be open for claims. Thousands of hopeful settlers waited on the boundary of the unopened territory. The largest was in 1893, when 8 million acres were opened up for settlement.
Pressure from white Americans for land to settle on was enough for the government to give in and find ways to move the Plains Indians somewhere else and then forcing them onto reservations.
141
Why was it difficult to bring criminals like Billy the Kid to justice in the west?
West was too large to manage effectively.
Few law enforcers for the size of the west - many were corrupt and accepted bribes.
Law enforcers were poorly trained - often recruited because they could put down fights.
Everyone carried guns, meaning incidents could quickly escalate.
Code of the west - sort out your own problems (self-defence not classed as murder).
Poverty - stealing was a way of life for many, hard to bring people to justice as life was so difficult.
Limited resources made conflict a way of life and difficult to solve.
People acted in gangs, intimidating to try to bring them to justice and gangs were supported by powerful businessmen.
Vigilante groups made a mockery of the justice system - no one really trusted it.
142
What did Billy the Kid do during the Lincoln County War in 1878?
Involved in conflict over resources between cattle baron John Chisum, who had a large ranch in New Mexico and a rancher called Murphy.
Billy the Kid fought against Murphy as they tried to take land.
Once the war ended after Murphy’s death, Billy swore to kill everyone responsible for the death of a friend in the war.
He and his gang had many hideouts around the country and a lot of support from local New Mexican people.
143
How was Billy the Kid captured?
President appointed a new governor, who elected a new sheriff, with the job of bringing Billy to justice (Pat Garrett).
Garrett tracked Billy down, captured him, brought him to court, where he was sentenced to death. The guards at the jail were careless and Billy escaped. Garrett tracked him again to Fort Sumner and shot him dead.
144
Why was Billy the Kid significant in the problems of law and order?
Powerless people (poor, ethnic minorities, small homesteaders/ranchers) liked the way he stood against the big northern businesses.
Most of his involvement in violence was as a hired gun in a war between cattle barons and those who dared challenge their control of the land.
The justice system in Lincoln County was too weak and corrupt to deal with Billy and his gang.
145
How did Wyatt Earp first get into law enforcement in 1874?
He was involved in a fight in the cow town of Wichita and was arrested. A rowdy group of cowboys started making trouble and Earl helped the deputy marshal to restore order and the mayor of Wichita offered him the job of deputy marshal. Earp moved on to be marshal in Dodge City until 1878, when he moved to Tombstone, Arizona Territory.
146
What was Tombstone like before Wyatt Earp?
It was controlled by rich mine owners and businessmen. Against them was a faction of ranchers and cowboys, mostly from Texas, led by two ranching families (the Clantons and the McLaurys). In 1880, the rich businessmen hired Wyatt Earp as deputy sheriff to bring order to the town.
147
How did Wyatt Earp affect Tombstone to begin with?
There were clashes between Wyatt and his brothers and the Clantons and McLaurys, as the lawmen tried to recover stolen horses and mules. The cowboys made more trouble through 1881, rustling cattle and robbing stagecoaches. Rumours spread that the Earps had been involved in the stagecoach robberies too, but the Earps and their supporters strongly denied this.
148
What happened at the OK Corral on 26th October 1881?
The Earps killed Tom and Frank McLaury and Billy Clinton. Virgil Earp, the city marshal, claimed that he had only intended to disarm the men, but they opened fire first. Some townspeople doubted this story.
149
What happened after the gunfight at the OK Corral in 1881?
Trouble continued, with the cowboys shooting Virgil Earp and killing Morgan Earp in 1882. Wyatt shot the two men he claimed were responsible for killing his brother. Opinion turned against the Earps: their violent approach to law-keeping had only caused more conflict and Wyatt had become a murderer with no regard for the law. Wyatt and his brothers were forced to flee Tombstone.
150
What happened to lawlessness as settlements developed?
Lawlessness decreased as settlements developed. People needed their businesses and their families to be secure. Residents voted in town governments who passed laws to ban guns within the town limits. As a result, most towns in the west were peaceful.
Once-lawless frontier towns were now connected to bigger towns and cities by rail and electric telegraph. This meant law officers and judges could keep in close contact with their superiors in state government. Residents didn’t want law officers like the Earps, and demanded better from the government.
151
How did cattlemen try to regain control towards the end of the 1880s and why wasn’t it successful?
They used their association (WSGA) to ban small ranches suspected of rustling from the round-up.
Ordinary people wouldn’t convict small ranchers of rustling.
152
What happened to Ella Watson and Jim Avenill in 1889?
They owned a homestead in the middle of cattleman Albert Bothwell’s pasture. He wanted them to leave. Jim spoke out in anger and in 1889, Ella obtained a small herd of cattle. Bothwell accused them of stealing the cows and they were both hung. Bothwell took over the land and other murders followed.
153
What did homesteaders and small ranchers do in response to the killings of Ella Watson and Jim Avenill in 1889?
They set up their own association in 1892 and decided to hold their own round-up one month before the WSGA and claim unbranded calves for themselves.
154
How did the WSGA respond to the action taken by homesteaders and small ranchers?
They were furious and planned to invade Johnson County and planned to kill 70 men, who they believed were responsible. The governor knew of the plans and the barons raised $100,000 to carry it out. Gunmen from Texas were hired and paid $5 per day with a $50 bonus for each rustler killed. They were brought into Wyoming on a train specifically supplied by the Union Pacific Railroad Company.
155
What happened when the WSGA went after 2 men from their list, Nate Champion and Nick Ray?
The gunmen attacked the KC ranch where Champion and Ray were. They set fire to the cabin and shot Nate as he ran away. The sheriff raided a force of 40 men to go after the invaders, but they were soon joined by 300 angry Johnson County residents. They surrounded the invaders until they were saved by the cavalry.
156
What happened at the trial after the WSGA attack on Nate Champion and Nick Ray, and how did tensions die down?
The invaders were put on trial but were backed by powerful men. The governor, judge, and marshal all supported the WSGA. The best lawyers were hired by the WSGA to defend the invaders - backed by a $100,000 fund. Lawyers convinced the judge that a fair trial was impossible in Johnson County so the trial moved to Cheyenne (jury more likely to favour rich). Knowing Johnson County was short of money, they dragged out the trial until the prosecution could no longer afford the trial cost - charges were dropped.
Farms and ranches fenced off their land and ranches had the same property rights as the homesteaders.
157
What led to the Battle of Little Big Horn 1876?
US Army commander Custer led an expedition of the 7th Cavalry protecting the railraod builders from Plains Indian attacks, however he also used it to prospect for gold in the Black Hills (Sioux Territory). Within 6 months, thousands of prospectors followed, staking claims to land, breaking the Second Fort Laramie Treaty 1868.
US government offered to buy Black Hills for $6 million, or pay $400,000 per year for the right to mine there, which was rejected.
Believing the government lied to them, thousands of Sioux and Cheyenne left their reservations to join Sioux leaders.
In December 1875, the government ordered the Sioux to return to their reservation, and gave them 60 days to do this, and after, President Grant said they’d be attacked if they were outside their reservation.
Deep snows made it impossible for all the Sioux to obey President Grant. By spring 1876, over 7,000 Sioux (2,000 of which were warriors) had built 1,000 lodges on lands between the Powder and Rosebud rivers.
158
What happened during the Battle of Little Big Horn, June 1876?
US army planned to attack the Sioux to force them back to their reservation. Custer’s scouts found a camp of 2,000 warriors in the valley of Little Big Horn. Custer had only 600 cavalry men with him and his orders were to find camp and wait for reinforcements.
Custer recklessly led 200 of his men into the valley. Sioux scouts reported their movements to Sitting Bull, who got the women and children to safety while Crazy Horse led an attack. Greatly outnumbered, Custer and all his 200 men were killed.
159
What were the impacts of the 1876 Battle of Little Big Horn?
It changed public perceptions of the Plains Indians from weak savages to a real threat. 2 new forts were built, 2,500 reinforcements sent west.
Enormous pressure on the US government to crush Plains Indian resistance.
Plains Indians must be kept on their reservations (short of ammunition, food and supplies, by the end of 1876, most Sioux and Cheyenne had returned to reservations, within 5 years, almost all were confined to reservations).
Previous treaties could be ignored (Sioux were told if they didn’t give up Black Hills, the government would stop sending food).
Military control of Plains Indians must be maintained (Sioux’s weapons and horses were taken and had to live under military rule).
In spring 1877, Crazy Horse surrendered to the US army in Nebraska. He was killed in autumn while under arrest at Fort Robinson.
160
What was the Ghost Dance in 1890 and what were its consequences?
A Paiute Indian, Wovoka, claimed to have had a vision telling him that, if Plains Indians rejected white ways of life and danced a sacred dance, the Great Spirit would then bring all the dead Plains Indians back to life. A great flood would carry away the white people and the land would belong to the Plains Indians again.
The Ghost Dance spread rapidly through the reservations. President Harrison ordered the army into the reservations to take control. This was the point at which Sitting Bull was killed in an attempt to arrest him. The army wrongly believed he was planning to lead the Ghost Dancers in a rebellion.
161
What happened at the Wounded Knee Massacre, 29th December 1890?
Sitting Bull’s followers fled south and joined the band of Big Foot, another refugee from a reservation. The army caught up with them and took them to Wounded Knee Creek. A Sioux warrior resisted being disarmed and others began to dance. In a confusion, a shot was fired. The 7th Cavalry opened fire. In 10 minutes, 250 Sioux were dead. Half the dead were women and children. The Massacre was the last clash between US army troops and the Sioux.
162
How did the public react to the Wounded Knee Massacre?
Public opinion was generally positive - soldiers who took part were praised and the public was relieved that the Ghost Dance was over.
This suggests most white Americans thought Plains Indians were naturally too wild and hostile, and if they couldn’t be controlled, they should be killed.
They saw it as revenge for Little Big Horn.
Some historians argue it was based on millenarian beliefs, common amongst oppressed people (the dream that some supernatural event will put right all the wrongs).
In 1890, the US census office announced that the Indian Frontier had ended: nowhere within the USA’s borders now belonged to any other nation or people.
163
How did the buffalo become extinct by 1883?
Over 25 million gone.
Prices for buffalo hide were between $1 and $3 so people rushed to kill as many as they could.
Many hunters killed more buffalo than they were able to skin and some inexperienced skinners wasted lots of hides.
In 1874, Congress proposed a fine of $100 for any non-American Indian to kill a female buffalo or kill more males than they needed to for food, but this was blocked by President Grant.
164
How did buffalo extinction affect Plains Indians?
Plains Indians resisted going onto reservations as long as there were buffalo to hunt.
Without their main food source, Plains Indians needed to learn to farm, and to assimilate. It also made them less independent - they had to rely on the government for food.
Reservation Indians became dependent on the government for food handouts. The government reduced the food rations to punish Plains Indians who took part in resistance resulting in starvation on the reservation.
165
How did buffalo extinction affect ranching?
Opened up the plains for cattle ranching. Cattle ranchers had powerful friends in the US government.
166
Why did the government introduce the 1887 Dawes Act?
They decided reservations were causing problems
167
What did the 1887 Dawes Act state?
Each Plains Indian family would be given a 160 acre share of reservation land.
Single Plains Indians would be given 80 acres, orphans 40 acres.
If they took up the offer, they could become American citizens.
Any leftover land could be sold to whites or railroad companies.
168
What were the aims of the 1887 Dawes Act?
Break up power of the tribes, encourage Plains Indians to be independent as individuals.
Encourage individuals to farm for themselves.
Encourage them to assimilate and become American citizens.
Free up more land for settlers.
Reduce the running costs of reservations and the money spent on government handouts.
169
What was the significance of the 1887 Dawes Act?
More land was freed up for settlers but Plains Indians lost half the land that they had.
Those who took up allotments found it impossible to farm. Many gave up and sold their land on, meaning they had nothing.
Some passed the land onto their children but making the allotments smaller made farming even more difficult.
Plains Indians felt cheated out of their land.
Their life became even harder.
