Paper 3 - Civil Rights Flashcards
(98 cards)
1
Q
What was the 1896 Plessy vs Fergusson law?
A
If the provisions for blacks and whites were equal, it was constitutional to separate them.
2
Q
What area of the USA was the most segregated?
A
The south.
3
Q
What impact did segregated schools have?
A
Reinforced the views of segregation from a young age.
Lowered self-esteem, confidence and aspirations.
Standard of education was poorer for African Americans.
Less likely to gain qualifications or to attend higher education.
More likely to have a lower skilled/paid job.
Poorer standard of living, more likely to live in poverty.
Couldn’t vote as couldn’t pass literacy tests.
4
Q
What gave African Americans the right to vote and how did states limit it?
A
15th Amendment to the Constitution.
Introduced poll tax qualifications and literacy tests, which stopped blacks from voting.
5
Q
Why did poll tax mean African Americans couldn’t vote?
A
African Americans didn’t pay poll tax because they were too poor, meaning they couldn’t vote.
6
Q
Why did literacy tests mean African Americans couldn’t vote?
A
Many African Americans couldn’t read or write, meaning they didn’t pass the literacy tests that registrars gave them, meaning they couldn’t vote.
Even if an African American passed the test, they could be made to pay a fee to register and pay for every year they had been eligible to vote but hadn’t. They didn’t have the money to do this, as many lived on the poverty line, so couldn’t vote.
7
Q
How did the NAACP use Linda Brown’s case to challenge segregation in court?
A
Linda Brown was a young student who had to travel a long journey along a railroad track to attend school, instead of being able to attend the nearest school (a white school). Linda’s case was taken up by the NAACP who tried to challenge the law.
8
Q
What did the NAACP lawyer, Thurgood Marshall, say about segregation during the 1954 Brown vs Board case?
A
He argued that segregation was psychologically damaging and created low self-esteem.
He said that as schools were equal, children couldn’t achieve equally.
9
Q
What was the result of the 1954 Brown vs Board case?
A
After 18 months, on 17th May 1954, the Supreme Court agreed that segregation in education was unconstitutional.
10
Q
What were the short-term problems of the 1954 Brown vs Board ruling?
A
The courts didn’t say when schools had to desegregate by - there was no deadline. Some schools desegregated immediately (723 schools and 300,000 black students attended previously segregated schools by 1957), but many, especially in the south, didn’t. 2.4 million black students in the south were still taught in black schools in 1954. President Eisenhower didn’t step in to begin with either.
65% of black parents said they thought their children should remain in black school.
11
Q
What were the long-term problems of the 1954 Brown vs Board ruling?
A
Some parents jouned the White Citizens Council (WCC).
The KKK grew in membership.
100 southern senators/congressmen sighted the Southern Manifesto, and passed 450 laws to limit the effects of the ruling in the 2 years that followed.
12
Q
What were the Jim Crow laws?
A
Laws that caused segregation.
13
Q
What happened at Little Rock High School in 1957?
A
9 black students were allowed to enrol there.
3rd September 1957, they tried to enrol but were prevented by state governor Faubus, who ordered Arkansas State National Guardsmen to block their entry.
4th September 1957, National Guard was removed on Faubus’ order, and the 9 students ran into a vicious white crowd of almost 1,000. At midday, the students went home under police guard.
President Eisenhower had to act, so took control of the National Guard, using them to protect the 9 students for the rest of the year.
Governor Faubus closed every school in Arkansas to prevent integration. Schools in Arkansas only reopened in 1959 following a Supreme Court ruling.
14
Q
Why was Little Rock 1957 significant?
A
Involved the president, showing civil rights couldn’t be ignored anymore.
Shows states would be overruled by the federal government if necessary.
Demonstrations were seen on television/in newspapers, and USA was embarrassed to be seen as an oppressive nation when it was criticising communist countries.
Happened when Soviet Union launched sputnik satellite, gave Soviet media the opportunity to claim not only technological, but also moral superiority over the USA.
Many US citizens saw for the first time racial hatred that existed in southern states.
Helped to modify some views held by white Americans at the same time as it highlighted continued racism, particularly in southern states.
Led black activists to realise that reliance on federal courts wasn’t enough to secure change.
15
Q
When did the Montgomery Bus Boycott begin and why?
A
5th December 1955
Rosa Parka’s trial was on that day after she was arrested on 1st December 1955 for refusing to give up her seat for a white man.
16
Q
What happened on 5th December 1955?
A
20,000 people became involved in the Montgomery Bus Boycott, 7,000 attended a rally led by Martin Luther King.
Rosa Parks was fined $10 for her offence on the bus and made to pay $4 in costs. The MIA decided to continue the boycott until their demands were met. The authorities refused to accept the MIA’s demands.
17
Q
What happened in January 1956 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
Martin Luther King’s house was firebombed, and other leaders’ homes were also targeted.
18
Q
What happened in February 1956 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
90 of the leading figures of the boycott (including King and Parks) were arrested for organising an illegal boycott. They were found guilty, but after appeal, no charges occurred. Parks and her husband lost their jobs and moved to Detroit.
19
Q
What happened in March 1956 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
Membership of the Montgomery White Council reached 12,000 and they used violence against the boycotters.
20
Q
What happened in summer 1956 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
The MIA took the case to federal court. They said it was unconstitutional to segregate people on buses this way. The federal court agreed but the city officials appealed and it went to the Supreme Court.
21
Q
What happened on 13th November 1956 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
The Supreme Court also agreed that what was happening in buses in Montgomery was illegal. The boycott had been successful.
22
Q
When did the Montgomery Bus Boycott formally come to an end?
A
20th December 1956
23
Q
What happened in January 1957 due to the Montgomery Bus Boycott?
A
The KKK sent members to the black areas of Montgomery to intimidate residents. The blacks simply waved at the KKK. Snipers attacked some of the buses and King’s home, and 4 churches were bombed. However, this intimidation did start to fade in Montgomery.
24
Q
Why did Rosa Parks as a figurehead mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
A
She was well-known in the community, was the secretary of the NAACP, was involved with voter registration, so more people likely to join the boycott.
NAACP didn’t want to use 15 year old Claudette Colvin as a figurehead as she got pregnant out of wedlock when they were looking at her case.
Parks was a married, middle-aged woman, respectable, been trained how to behave during peaceful protests.
This all made a difference because it influenced both black and white people to be sympathetic to the cause.
25
Why did good preparations mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
Thousands of leaflets were printed, encouraging people to boycott the buses.
The weekend before the boycott, local civil rights activists (such as E.D. Nixon, Ralph Abernathy and Martin Luther King) became involved, and began to plan a rally for the evening of the trial and the local NAACP started preparing its legal challenge to the segregation laws.
MIA was established to oversee the boycott. Just involved to stop African Americans standing when white seats were available.
This meant the boycott could continue and succeed. It also gained more publicity.
26
Why did the MIA’s support mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
Black taxi companies were charging only 10 cents per ride, however, a law was passed that required the minimum fare to be 45 cents.
MIA met with church groups and organisations to set up carpools (began 12th December 1955) and had around 300 carpools.
Fundraising by the MIA and persistence shown meant it grew in publicity.
This meant that the boycott could continue and succeed, and gained more popularity.
27
Why did the support from people in Montgomery mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
Boycotters persisted even though they lost jobs/loans, were threatened, firebombed and put in jail.
Thousands of leaflets were printed, encouraging people to boycott the buses.
20,000 people were involved in the 5th December boycott.
7,000 people were involved in the rally.
This was important as it proved perseverance despite opposition from the Montgomery White Council (12,000 members). It showed the steps people were willing to take for change, how many people would get involved and the importance of publicity.
28
Why did Martin Luther King as a leader mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
He was new in Montgomery, so had no enemies. He was a clergyman (respected), paid by the church, so couldn’t be fired by white business - faith won him supporters.
Well-educated - believed in blacks and whites working together (non-violent), inspired by Ghandi.
Helped organise carpools.
Inspired others.
He was important as he increased supporters, set up SCLC (January 1957) to increase voters, inspired through speeches, aimed to unite blacks and whites in America through non-violent means.
29
Why did the Federal and Supreme Court’s support mean the 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott was successful?
1st February 1956 - Browder vs Gayle, NAACP filed that segregation on buses was a violation of the 14th Amendment, and MIA then decided to demand desegregation.
11th May 1956 - went to trial in Federal Court, bus company appealed to the Supreme Court.
13th November 1956 - upheld verdict that segregation on buses was unconstitutional.
17th December - 2nd appeal rejected.
20th December - boycott ended, integrated services began next day.
This was vital as it supported Brown vs Board, turning point in desegregation, showed benefits of peaceful approach and perseverance. Paved way for 1957 Civil Rights Act.
30
What were the aims of Martin Luther King’s SCLC, which was set up in January 1957?
Encouraged black Americans to ‘seek justice and reject all injustice’.
Promoted King’s philosophy of non-violence regardless of the provocation.
Encouraged white Americans to help their fellow black citizens to challenge racism.
Their motto was ‘not one hair of one head of one white person shall be harmed’.
31
What was the 1958 ‘Crusade for Citizenship’ and did it succeed?
The SCLS organised a pilgrimage which marched to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC in 1958. It aimed to increase the number of black voters and hoped to force President Eisenhower to speak out on civil rights. However, the march failed to attract widespread support.
32
How did President Eisenhower react to the SCLC’s ‘Crusade for Citizenship’?
Eisenhower refused to be drawn into the debate over civil rights.
33
What did the 1957 Civil Rights Act do?
Established the US Commission on Civil Rights - its first project was to look for evidence of racial discrimination in voting rights in Montgomery, Alabama.
Emphasised the right of all people to vote, regardless of colour or race.
Allowed the federal government to intervene if individuals were prevented from voting.
Stated that all people had the right to serve on juries.
34
What were some problems of the 1957 Civil Rights Act?
It didn’t win the full support of many Southern Democrat Party members and their opposition led to the watering-down of the contents.
Many black Americans were against the Act as it didn’t go far enough.
35
What were some positives of the 1957 Civil Rights Act?
It was supported by President Eisenhower (although, he’d always stated that it was impossible to change people’s minds by introducing laws).
It was hoped that the Act would increase the number of black American voters.
Some black Americans thought it would be the foundation for more wide-reaching acts in the future.
36
What did the second Civil Rights Act (1960) do?
It renewed the US Commission on Civil Rights from the 1957 Civil Rights Act, and stated that people would be prosecuted if they obstructed someone’s attempt to register to vote or someone’s attempt to vote.
37
What was the Ku Klux Klan?
Identified themselves as White Anglo-Saxon Protestants and saw themselves as superior to other races, especially African Americans. They were also anti-communist, anti-Jews, anti-Catholic, and against all foreigners.
Their leader was known as the Imperial Wizard, and officers were known as Klaliffs, Kluds, or Klabees.
38
How did the KKK dress and why?
Klansmen dressed in white sheets and wore white hoods. This outfit was designed to conceal the identity of Klan members, who often attacked their victims at night. The white colour symbolised white supremacy. Members carried American flags and lit burning crosses at their night meetings.
39
What did members of the KKK do?
Carried out lynchings of black people and they beat up and mutilated anyone they considered to be their enemy. They stripped some of their victims and put tar and feathers on their bodies.
40
How did people try to deal with the KKK and why didn’t this work?
In 1946, 15,000 people marched to the Lincoln Memorial in Washington DC to demand the organisation be made illegal. Many politicians in the south knew that if they spoke out against the Klan, they’d lose votes and might not be elected to Congress.
41
What happened to Emmett Till, August 1955?
In August 1955, Emmett Till, a 14 year old African American from Chicago, visited his relatives in the town of Money, Mississippi. He was accused of harassing a white woman in a shop. A few days later, the husband and brother-in-law of the woman abducted Till from his relatives’ house. They beat and killed Emmett and threw his body in a local river. When the body was found some days later, Till could only be identified by the initials of a ring he wore. The two men were arrested and identified in court as the men who had abducted Emmett.
42
What happened at the trial of Emmett Till’s murder, September 1955?
The trial began in September and lasted 4 days. The jury’s decision took only one hour and one juror said it would’ve taken less but for the delay of refreshments taken in to them. The all-white jury found the two white defendants not guilty, explaining that they believed the state had failed to prove the identity of the body. Till’s body was returned to Chicago, and his mother ensured that the coffin was open so that people could see the extent of the beating that Emmett had taken. She hoped to shame the authorities in Mississippi.
43
What does the term ‘Dixiecrat’ mean?
It’s used to describe white southern Democrats opposed to civil rights legislation.
44
How did the Dixiecrats disrupt progress to Civil Rights in the 1950s?
In 1957, they had Senator Thurmond (South Carolina) who conducted the longest ever speech (24 hours and 18 minutes) in an attempt to prevent the passage of the 1957 Civil Rights Act. This is called a filibuster.
45
Who was involved with the 1st February-July 1960 Sit-In Protests?
Izell Blair
Franklin McCain
Joseph McNeil
David Richmond
Martin Luther King
CORE
SNCC
SCLC
46
What happened during the 1st February-July 1960 Sit-Ins and were they successful?
Protested the segregation of lunch counters.
Students used a department store and sat in the white section of segregated lunch counters (Greensborough, North Carolina).
Stayed until closing time.
25 students sat in the next day.
By 4th February, there were over 300 students, working in shifts.
CORE and SCLC sent people to train the students on non-violent methods.
Martin Luther King visited in April (height of the sit-ins).
Successful as sit-ins spread, white people supported and joined, gained publicity due to visible protest and amount of people involved, north and south support, SNCC received grant of $800 from SCLC.
47
Who was involved with the 4th May 1961 Freedom Rides?
James Farmer (National Director of CORE).
CORE
SNCC
KKK
48
What happened during the 4th May 1961 Freedom Rides and were they successful?
Protested segregation of bus facilities and bus transport.
2 buses travelled to Alabama (4th May).
14th May - first bus reached Anniston (Alabama), over 100 KKK members surrounded it, broke windows, slashed tyres, used firebombs, shut riders in.
Second bus didn’t know, was beaten there.
Press coverage was embarrassment to the government.
Mob of over 1,000, but police arrested riders for starting a riot and for using a white-only waiting room.
Successful as membership of CORE doubled by December 1961, reached 52,000 members, press coverage generated publicity, white support from young people, raised awareness, 22nd September regulations banned segregation on interstate travel.
49
Who was involved with the James Meredith Protest, June 1962?
James Meredith
President Kennedy
CORE
SNCC
50
What happened during the June 1962 James Meredith Protest and was it successful?
June 1962, Supreme Court upheld decision to accept James Meredith as a student.
University of Mississippi didn’t want black students.
President Kennedy sent 320 federal marshals to escort him to classes.
Riots - 2 people killed, 166 marshals and 210 demonstrators injured. 2,000 troops, nicknamed ‘Battle of Oxford’.
300 troops remained on-campus until he got his degree 3 years later.
Successful as Meredith got his degree, raised awareness due to President Kennedy’s involvement, showed his support, CORE and SNCC organised it.
51
Who was involved with the Albany Movement, November 1961-1962?
Martin Luther King
SNCC
Albany Movement Organisation
52
What happened during the November 1961-1962 Albany Movement and was it successful?
Wanted while town desegregation.
Late 1961, several hundred freedom riders arrested in Albany.
Protest didn’t get support from NAACP - seen as troublemakers in SNCC.
When King protested, was arrested, then released instead of jailed, didn’t gain publicity the others had.
Recognised as a major defeat, city parks/pools/etc shut down, seats removed in libraries after being integrated, bus stations desegregated, few more people registered to vote, failure of cooperation from NAACP/SNCC/SCLC, Martin Luther King visited but SNCC didn’t want him there (wanted local).
53
Who was involved with the Birmingham Protest, 3rd April 1963?
Martin Luther King
President Kennedy
SCLC
SNCC
ACMHR
54
What happened during the 3rd April 1963 Birmingham Protest and was it successful?
To avoid desegregation, Birmingham, Alabama, closed everything.
Began 3rd April, hoped to use large number of 15,000 black inhabitants.
6th April, some arrests.
10th April, King arrested, released 20th April and situation worsened.
Children and students used in protest, 3rd May Police Chief ‘Bull’ Connor set dogs on protestors and used fire department hoses, put almost 2,000 people in jail, and around 1,300 children.
Events were televised worldwide, showed violence of authorities when facing peaceful protests.
President Kennedy sent Assistant Attorney General Burke to mediate between parties.
Desegregation introduced eventually in Birmingham within 90 days after 9th May 1963.
55
Who was involved with the March on Washington, 28th August 1963?
Martin Luther King
NAACP
CORE
SNCC
SCLC
56
What happened during the 28th August 1963 March on Washington and was it successful?
Protested for jobs and freedom.
Marched on Washington DC.
250,000 people (40,000 white) protested peacefully together.
‘I have a dream’ speech.
Largest political gathering in US history (at the time).
Broadcast all over the US.
Successful as it showed white support, showed civil rights couldn’t be ignored, more well-known, talks of legislation. However a following bomb attack on a Sunday school led to riots, 4 black girls died, more violence, 2 more black children were killed.
57
Who was involved with the Freedom Summer Protests, 1962-1964?
James Chaney (AA)
Andrew Goodman (WA)
Michael Schwerner (WA)
Above were volunteers arrested and murdered by police.
SNCC
CORE
MFDF
KKK
58
What happened during the 1962-1964 Freedom Summer Protests and were they successful?
Protested civil rights and justice.
SNCC and CORE set up freedom summer - 1,000 people worked with local projects in the black community.
30 freedom schools - helped them pass literacy tests.
Mississippi had lowest percentage of black voters (7%).
KKK opposition (2 CORE members arrested, 8 shot dead).
Schools had 70,000 students by end of 1962.
Successful as taught how to pass literacy tests, increased number of black voters, pushed civil rights bill, but led to conflict and attacks on black people (30 houses and 37 churches bombed), however presidential involvement in convicting murdered of 3 volunteers was negative as he was criticised he was only involved as 2/3 of volunteers were white.
59
Who was involved with the Selma March, 21st March 1965?
Jim Clark (sheriff)
Martin Luther King
President Johnson
60
What happened during the 21st March 1965 Selma March and was it successful?
Protested for voting rights and legislation.
1964 Civil Rights Act - problem was voting restrictions.
Forced Johnson’s hand on bill, gave a speech to Congress persuading this to happen.
March wasn’t allowed to happen, but King was determined, hoped to use sheriff’s racism to his favour.
7th March, first began, was stopped.
9th March, tried again, Johnson stepped in, told them not to.
21st March, went ahead.
Successful as Voting Rights Act 1965, ended literacy tests, federal agents monitored registrations to get rid of discrimination, turning point (fewer than 50% eligible black voters led to investigation), went from passive to active involvement in Black votes, 250,000 registered to vote by end of 1965, black representatives elected.
61
What did the 1964 Civil Rights Act do?
Segregation in public places was banned.
Was federal court’s responsibility to bring cases of discrimination to court.
Any business involved with the government would be monitored so that discrimination didn’t occur.
Many organisations were established to make sure that there wasn’t discrimination in jobs and equal opportunities for all (Fair Employment Practises Committee and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission).
62
What did the 1965 Voting Rights Act do?
Ended literacy tests.
Ensured federal agents could monitor registration and step in if they felt discrimination was occurring (if fewer than 50% of those eligible to vote were registered, federal government would assume discrimination was occurring and would step in).
By the end of 1965, 250,000 African Americans had registered to vote (1/3 of them were due to government agents stepping in). By 1968, a further 750,000 had registered.
The number of black elected representatives in government increased rapidly after the bill.
63
What did Kennedy do to support Civil Rights?
Appointed black people to high-level jobs (Thurgood Marshall in court, Robert Weaver in his administration).
Pressed for laws (was assassinated before 1963 civil rights bill was passed).
Intervened using executive orders (sent troops to Mississippi).
Personal pressure (pressed for escorts for the Freedom Rides).
Campaigned for black vote.
Helped secure Martin Luther King’s release.
Put forward an idea for a New Frontier, where he wanted to achieve equality for all.
Appointed 5 black federal judges (including Thurgood Marshall).
Appointed his brother as Attorney General, meaning law courts could be used to ensure civil rights laws were followed.
Threatened legal action against Louisiana state for refusing to fund schools that weren’t segregated.
Sent over 2,000 troops to ensure James Meredith could study at the University of Mississippi.
64
What did Johnson do to support Civil Rights?
Appointed black people to high-level jobs (Thurgood Marshall into the Supreme Court, Patricia Harris as a US ambassador).
Pressed for laws (secured the Civil Rights Act (1964) and Voting Rights Act (1965)).
Intervened with executive orders (federalised the Alabama state National Guard to escort marchers from Selma to Montgomery).
Personal pressure (pressed southern politicians to support civil rights bill).
Put forward his vision of a ‘Great Society’.
Attacked racial injustice and poverty.
65
What was the difference between Malcolm X and Martin Luther King’s childhoods?
Malcolm X: separatism views, dad beat him and siblings, dad died in an accident but X believed he was killed by the KKK, mum declared legally insane after, took drugs, commuted crimes, was arrested.
Martin Luther King: dad was a preacher, grew up in middle-class home in Atlanta, spoke in his father’s church, got a PhD from Boston University.
66
What was the difference between Malcolm X and Martin Luther King’s religions?
X was Muslim.
King was Christian.
67
What was the difference between Malcolm X and Martin Luther King’s methods?
Both used speeches, but X believed using violence was justified to get what you wanted whereas King believed in peaceful protest.
68
What were the key events in Malcolm X’s life?
1952 - became a follower of Black Muslims, changed his name to X.
1964 - left Black Muslims, formed Muslim Mosque, went on pilgrimage to Mecca causing him to stop believing fully in separatism.
69
What was the impact that Malcolm X had on the Civil Rights Movement?
Didn’t support it, and neither did his followers.
Engaged/inspired young, poor, urban black men.
70
What impact did Malcolm X have on the Nation of Islam (Black Muslims)?
Helped increase membership to about 100,000 in the years 1952-1964.
Elijah Muhammed (leader) saw him as competition so kicked him out, causing X to form the Muslim Mosque.
71
What were Malcolm X’s main achievements?
Credited with reconnecting black African Americans with their African heritage and is responsible for the spread of Islam in the black community in the USA.
72
What were some key events of Stokely Carmichael’s life?
Born in 1941.
Moved to New York City in 1943.
Attended Howard University, Washington DC, gained a degree in philosophy in 1960.
1961 - took part in freedom rides, jailed for 7 weeks.
1966 - became chairman of SNCC.
1966 - 27th arrest, ‘Black Power’ speech.
1967 - wrote ‘Black Power’.
1968 - joined Black Panthers.
1969 - left USA, moved to Guinea, changed his name to Kwame Ture.
1998 - died in Guinea.
73
Where did the Black Power movement originate from?
Emerged against the backdrop of urban unrest during the years 1965-1967. It was originally a slogan, but in the late 1960s, it came to cover a wide range of activities that aimed to increase the power of blacks in American life. It was Malcolm X’s idea.
74
Why did the Black Power Movement gain popularity in the north?
For some people, Black Power meant separation, but for others, it meant they could rid the USA of a corrupt power structure.
Nothing in the north was really improving - living conditions were still really poor and many lived in poverty.
75
What did the Black Power Movement stand for?
Encouraged black people to be proud of their heritage and culture.
Rejected help from shore people and relied on themselves.
Tackled some of the social problems that blacks faced (poverty/unemployment).
Argued against forced integration, said it wouldn’t produce real equality.
Used militant language and spoke about revolution.
Created their own political force so they wouldn’t have to rely on the black groupings that existed (eg NAACP, CORE, SCLC).
76
Why did Stokely Carmichael change his affiliation from SNCC?
He left SNCC after being attacked when denouncing the USA’s involvement in the Vietnam War. He then became associated with the Black Panthers.
77
What did the Black Panthers do?
Patrolled the streets in black communities to keep them safe.
Worked to create ‘rainbow coalitions’ to encourage cooperation between non-white city gangs that usually fought each other.
Controlled traffic around schools with no pedestrian crossings, where children were often hit by cars.
Continually pressed local white government officials to provide street lighting, pedestrian crossings and aid for ghetto communities.
Ran courses on black history and citizens’ rights.
Carried guns for self-defence and tape recorders so they could tape police harassment.
Organised medical clinics and provided free shoes for poor black people.
Ran breakfast clubs for poor black children before school.
78
What was the Black Panthers’ uniform?
Black beret, black trousers, black leather jacket.
79
What were the Black Panthers’ key beliefs?
White officials and police weren’t supporting black communities.
Said black people needed black officials and police who would work for the community.
Were willing to work with white people who shared their beliefs.
80
How successful were the Black Panthers?
Established the free breakfast program and by the end of 1969, they served free breakfasts to 20,000 school children in 19 different cities, 1700 meals served per week to people in ghettos.
Gave clothing to the poor, legal advice and drug rehab to those who needed it.
Wore uniforms, were ready to use weapons and train other members to do so.
However only achieved it on a local scale as they were constantly targeted by the FBI (by 1968, had 5,000 members, by end of 1969, 27 were killed and 700 injured due to confrontations with police), so public support decreased, and by 1982, the group disbanded.
81
What was the worst of the 1965-1967 riots and what happened?
Watts Riot in Los Angeles.
Involved 30,000 people.
Left 34 dead.
1,072 injured.
4,000 arrested.
$40 million in damage.
82
Why did the 1965-1967 riots break out?
Over 80% of rioters were young black men.
Police discrimination - police seemed more concerned with harassing young black men, than keeping ghettos safe - they were quick to shoot suspects and in the 30 months before, 65 were killed (27 shot in back, 25 unarmed).
Discrimination by white officials - didn’t respond to complaints about issues in black populated areas.
Unemployment - blacks twice as likely to be unemployed than whites.
Poor quality education - schools were run down, under-equipped and lacked funding.
Poverty - blacks twice as likely to be poor, landlords (usually white) crowded them into over-priced, cramped and poor quality housing.
83
What was Martin Luther King’s reaction to the 1965-1967 riots?
He was shocked and surprised (‘we obviously aren’t reaching these people’).
Many of the black Americans he met were triumphant and claimed they’d been successful in the riot.
He felt his work had been undone.
84
What was President Johnson’s reaction to the 1965-1967 riots?
After the Watts riot, Johnson is alleged to have said to a press secretary, ‘What did you expect? I don’t know why we’re so surprised.’
Caused Johnson and his advisers to investigate the factors behind them.
National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders was set up and published the Kerner Report in 1968.
85
What was the Kerner Report?
Black Power movement showed that equality of opportunity didn’t exist and the Kerner report stated that racism was deeply embedded in American society.
Kerner report concluded that the USA was ‘moving towards two societies, one black, one white - separate and unequal’.
Highlighted economic issues faced by black Americans (2x more likely to live in poverty than whites) and systematic police bias and brutality.
Recommended sweeping federal initiatives that would mean increased expenditure.
Following the election of President Nixon later, the report was largely ignored.
86
What was done in the north to help poor black people?
Tenants associations were organised to fight against segregated housing and unfair rents. Daley agreed to encourage integrated housing but little was achieved, with most blacks remaining in ghettos.
SCLC received a $4 million grant to improve housing.
Jesse Jackson (SCLC) organised ‘Operation Breadbasket’ - boycotts of white-owned businesses who refused to employ black people, became a success after King left Chicago in autumn 1966.
King went to Chicago to organise meetings and demonstrations, which became very violent. King was unable to prevent protesters from fighting back and a riot occurred whilst King was in Chicago.
87
What were some problems to King’s campaign in the north?
Some argue he worsened the situation in Chicago after a peaceful March of 500 black Americans in a white neighbourhood resulted in residents throwing rocks and bottles at them. He was said to have encouraged backlash.
His aim of wealth distribution to focus on economic freedom of black people was seen as too extreme (almost communist) by most Americans.
After a march through white neighbourhoods, Richard Daley (mayor) agreed on fairer housing prices, so King and most of SCLC left, but then Daley ignored the agreement.
King and President Johnson’s relationship became strained so government didn’t become actively involved to force Daley to carry out the agreement.
Churches in the north often supported change in the south, but were less supportive of the economic and social changes that could mean they’d have to pay higher taxes.
88
Why did the problems of King’s campaign in the north limit its success?
King was known for peaceful protests, now seen as inciting violence that wasn’t there before his arrival, he couldn’t plan for the violence as he didn’t expect it, lost support as violence was negative.
Vietnam War, Capitalist mentality, Cold War decreased success of movement as idea of wealth distribution was seen as communist.
Mayor didn’t support movement so nothing would change, and may have dissuaded citizens from supporting it.
Daley had no one to answer to as Johnson wasn’t supporting King.
Support of churches was massively influential in gaining support for other protests, so without it limited the movement’s support.
89
What had been happening in Memphis before King’s assassination, and what was he hoping to achieve there?
1,300 sanitary workers were on strike (weren’t paid equally to white colleagues).
King was making a speech and doing a march.
Police got violent and so did some people who didn’t believe in King’s non-violence.
Army brought in, banned marches.
King wanted to go back to Memphis a week later, did a speech.
90
When was King assassinated?
4th April 1968, shot at around 18:00.
91
What was unusual about James Earl Ray’s (King’s killer) confession?
Pleaded guilty after overwhelming evidence. After he was sentenced, he pleaded innocent and continued to do so for the rest of his life.
92
What happened within hours of King’s death and how many people attended his funeral?
Violent riots spread across America in 130 cities.
Around 100,000 people attended his funeral (only 800 were allowed in the church).
93
What was President Nixon’s policy towards Civil Rights?
Richard Nixon had seemed to be in favour of civil rights in the 1950s. However, as President (1969-1974), he showed little sympathy or support for the movement. He made no attempt to meet black leaders and was against the idea that there should be a national holiday to celebrate King’s birthday. He dealt harshly with extreme groups such as the Black Panthers.
94
What progress had been made by 1975 in education?
Despite obstacles, there was some progress in integration during this period. In 1968, 68% of southern black children attended segregated schools, but by 1974, this had fallen to 8%. The bus initiative made southern schools among America’s integrated. Nixon refused to support the Supreme Court during the Swann vs Charlotte Mecklenburg case of 1971. The court said it was time for school desegregation to be fully carried out by bussing children considerable distances to achieve racially mixed schools. However, Nixon insisted that this wouldn’t benefit the children involved, or the local community.
95
What progress had been made by 1975 in employment and business?
In 1972, Nixon set up the Office of Minority Business Enterprise to encourage black business. In the same year, the Equal Employment Opportunity Act have the courts greater powers to enforce equality in employment. Over 300,000 companies which has federal contracts now employed more black Americans.
By 1975, African Americans could point to some progress but also to continued inequalities. In 1970, unemployment among whites was, on average, about 5% but for black Americans it was almost 8%. Among white teenagers, it was about 15%, but for black American teenagers, it was about 50%.
96
What progress had been made by 1975 in politics?
I’m 1973, more than 200 African Americans were elected to state legislatures and 16 had been elected to Congress. However, in the 1976 presidential election, more than one third of African Americans didn’t register to vote and fewer than half of those registered actually voted. Among the under 25s, just over one third registered to vote and only one quarter of those voted. Elections in the south showed not only increased black voter participation, but also increased involvement in politics.
97
What progress had been made by 1975 in poverty?
Statistics suggest that federal anti-poverty measures raised the living standards of black Americans. In 1960, 50% of black Americans were living below the poverty line. This had fallen to 30% by 1974. Educational opportunities had also improved, offering a way out of the poverty trap.
98
How many black Americans had an average income of $20,000, compared to white Americans?
Only 14.2% of African Americans had an income of $20,000, whereas, for white families, it was 32.5%
