Pathology

Question 1

What concepts does pathology include

Answer 1

study of the mechanisms of disease, application of laboratory methods to investigate and diagnose disease in individual patients

Question 2

What gene is often found in women with breast cancer

Answer 2

HER2

Question 3

What does HER2 do?

Answer 3

it encodes for a protein that promotes growth of cells

Question 4

outcome

Answer 4

a statement of patient health or illness at a defined time

Question 5

necrosis

Answer 5

premature death of cells and living tissue

Question 6

what’s necrosis caused by

Answer 6

external factors such as infection, toxins or trauma

Question 7

ischemia

Answer 7

diminished blood supply

Question 8

when is necrosis no longer reversible

Answer 8

when the tissue is infarcted

Question 9

Apoptosis

Answer 9

Prograammed cell death, requiring energy

Question 10

Resolution

Answer 10

complete restoration of the tissue to normal after an episode of acute inflammation

Question 11

Factors favouring resolution

Answer 11

minimal cell death/tissue damage, occurrence in organ/tissue with regenerative capacity, rapid destruction of causal agent, rapid removal of fluid/ debris by good local vascular drainage.

Question 12

What’s healing by regeneration

Answer 12

is restitution with no, or minimal residual defect (no defect seen by naked eye)- replacing the cells that were originally lost

Question 13

What’s healing by repair

Answer 13

healing wehre tissue is lost (fibrosis occurs and scar tissue is formed)

Question 14

Suppuration

Answer 14

formation of pus

Question 15

what is pus made up of?

Answer 15

living cells, dying cells, dead neutrophils, cellular debris and bacteria

Question 16

What forms an abscess

Answer 16

accumulation of pus within a tissue

Question 17

What’s organisation of tissues

Answer 17

is their replacement by granulation tissue

Question 18

What factors favour organisation

Answer 18

large amounts of fibrin formed, substantial necrosis and exudate and when debris can’t be removed or discharged

Question 19

when does resolution occur

Answer 19

when there’s minimal tissue damage, the damage is neutralised and there’s regrowth of cells

Question 20

When does healing by repair occur

Answer 20

when the damage is neutralised but some tissue is damaged and so organisation occurs

Question 21

when does chronic inflammation occur

Answer 21

when there’s a persistent damaging agent with tissue destruction and so organisation with continued inflammation

Question 22

what is completely destroyed tissue replaced by

Answer 22

vascular granulation tissue

Question 23

angiogenesis

Answer 23

new blood vessels

Question 24

collagen synthesis

Answer 24

formation of scars

Question 25

what are the predominant features in repairs?

Answer 25

angiogenesis, fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis

Question 26

what's the causative agent for acute inflammation?

Answer 26

bacterial pathogens, injured tissue

Question 27

what's the causative agent for chronic inflammation

Answer 27

persistent acute inflammation due to non-degradable pathogens, viral infection , persistent foreign bodies, or autoimmune reactions

Question 28

what's the onset for acute inflammation

Answer 28

immediate

Question 29

what's the onset for chronic inflammation

Answer 29

delayed

Question 30

how long does acute inflammation last

Answer 30

few days

Question 31

how long does chronic inflammation last

Answer 31

up to many months, or years

Question 32

what's the outcome of acute inflammation

Answer 32

resolution, access formation, chronic inflammation

Question 33

what's the outcome of chronic inflammation

Answer 33

tissue destruction, fibrosis and necrosis

Question 34

What's happens during acute inflammation in response to injury?

Answer 34

vascular changes, cellular changes, chemical mediators and morphologic patterns

Question 35

When is organisation favoured

Answer 35

if there's lots of necrosis, poor blood supply as it's difficult to remove debris and it depends on the tissue type, as some such as liver can regenerate

Question 36

What is a space that is filled with pus and walled off called?

Answer 36

empyema

Question 37

When is healing by organisation and repair favoured instead of resolution?

Answer 37

When damage goes beyond the basement membrane

Question 38

Why when damage goes beyond the basement membrane does resolution occur?

Answer 38

because organisation and repair need the basement membrane as scaffolding

Question 39

What issues does scarring cause?

Answer 39

loss of function

Question 40

cirrhosis

Answer 40

scarring and fibrosis in liver

Question 41

What can occur from scarring in the liver?

Answer 41

can result in liver failure as cannot move and make the proteins it needs

Question 42

job of liver

Answer 42

makes and breaks things

Question 43

what does scarring look like under a microscope?

Answer 43

knobbly and denser pink strips and

Question 44

chronic inflammations link with time and severity

Answer 44

no link

Question 45

when is chronic inflammation favoured

Answer 45

when there's suppuration, persistence of injury, infectious agents especially viruses and the type of injury (autoimmune)

Question 46

first cell reacting to immune response

Answer 46

neutrophils

Question 47

what's stronger than neutrophils

Answer 47

macrophages

Question 48

What do granulomas found in the body suggest

Answer 48

foreign bodies and infections

Question 49

What does tuberculous granulomas do?

Answer 49

produce caseous necrosis (looks like cottage cheese)

Question 50

Resolution

Answer 50

cell is as good as new

Question 51

another word for organisation

Answer 51

scarring or fibrosis

Question 52

infarction

Answer 52

death of tissue after loss of oxygen

Question 53

What occurs during hypoxia

Answer 53

there's no oxygen so ATP produced

Question 54

Consequences of no ATP being produced in the cell

Answer 54

the Na/K ATPase fails which increases K, causing swelling. The calcium pump fails, increasing intracellular calcium. The increased calcium stimulates phospholipase activity (membrane damage), increase protease activity (membrane and cytoskeleton damage), , increases endonuclease (DNA damage and breakdown) and also increases mitochondrial permeability (releasing pro death factors)

Question 55

how long is the damage reversible in the myocardium?

Answer 55

20 minutes

Question 56

Coagulative necrosis

Answer 56

such sudden cell death that some structure pf the cell is still left as a 'ghost line' before complete phagocytosis of materials

Question 57

How long for fibroblasts to finish laying down collagen?

Answer 57

6 weeks

Question 58

how do cells cope with stress?

Answer 58

hypertrophy and hyperplasia

Question 59

What occurs if cell stress is too severe?

Answer 59

Necrosis or Apotosis

Question 60

does necrosis require energy

Answer 60

no

Question 61

can necrosis be normal/ physiological ?

Answer 61

no

Question 62

coagulative necrosis

Answer 62

there's a preservation of cell outline, usually happens if death is really quick

Question 63

what tissue does coagulative necrosis most often occur in

Answer 63

cardiac muscle

Question 64

liquefactive necrosis

Answer 64

liquid viscous mass and there's no cell structure remaining

Question 65

where does liquefaction necrosis usually occur

Answer 65

the brain

Question 66

caseous necrosis

Answer 66

cheesy necrosis

Question 67

what is caseous necrosis associated with

Answer 67

tuberculosis

Question 68

does apoptosis require ATP

Answer 68

yes

Question 69

can apoptosis be physiological

Answer 69

yes, occurs during cell cycle and during ovulation

Question 70

When does pathological apoptosis occur

Answer 70

in response to injury, radiation, chemotherapy, viral infection, cancers, graft versus host disease

Question 71

The mechanisms in apoptosis

Answer 71

extrinsic and intrinsic pathways

Question 72

extrinsic pathway

Answer 72

cell being told to die from outside

Question 73

intrinsic pathway

Answer 73

cell itself sensing it needs to die off

Question 74

explain extrinsic pathway

Answer 74

Fas ligand is present on T cells, it binds to FAS (receptor) which leads to a cascade cascade which eventually leads to apoptosis

Question 75

what happens if there's a Fas mutation

Answer 75

autoimmune disease

Question 76

Explain intrinsic/mitochondrial pathway

Answer 76

growth signals normally promote anti-aptotic molecules in the mitochondrial membrane. When they're removed they're replaced by Fax, Back. These increase permeability in the mitochondria which release proteins (cytochrome C) which stimulates a caspase cascade and apoptosis

Question 77

role of p53

Answer 77

halts cell cycle if there's cell damage and the cell cannot be repaired and then it stimulates caspases and induces apoptosis

Question 78

what does too much or too little apoptosis cause

Answer 78

too little- cancer, autoimmune disease | too much- neurodegenerative disorders

Question 79

what do cells look like when undergoing apoptosis

Answer 79

cell shrinks, chromatin condensation occurs, the cytoplasm breaks up and then macrophages come and eat it all

Question 80

What causes cellular ageing

Answer 80

oxidative stress- free radical damage and accumulation of metabolism by products

Question 81

Tumour

Answer 81

swelling

Question 82

difference between maligns=ant and benign tumours

Answer 82

malignant- harmful, asymetrical | benign- not harmful, smooth, symmetrical

Question 83

neoplasia

Answer 83

growth that is not in response to a stimulus

Question 84

is neoplasia malignant?

Answer 84

can be benign, premalignant or malignant

Question 85

where can you get neoplasia?

Answer 85

anywhere