Perception, Prejudice, and bias

Question 1

A model of attribution theory that describes three pieces of information that influence our judgment of how to attribute behaviors: consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency

Answer 1

Kelly’s covariation model

Question 2

Kelly’s covariation model

The extent that other people behave the same way in a similar situation
Do other people behave this way?

Answer 2

Consensus

Question 3

Kelly’s covariation model

The extent to which the person in question behaves the same way in a similar situation
Does this person behave this way in a similar situation?

Answer 3

Distinctiveness

Question 4

Kelly’s covariation model

The extent to which the person in question behaves the same way every time in this exact situation
Does this person always behave this way?

Answer 4

Consistency

Question 5

an overgeneralization of a belief that all members of a group share certain characteristics

Answer 5

Stereotyping

Question 6

When exposure to a negative stereotype becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy and affects performance
Example: If girls are told that “girls are bad at math” they will perform worse on math tests

Answer 6

Stereotype-threat

Question 7

The existence of stereotypes leads to reinforcing behaviors of that stereotype

Example: The stereotype of “rude New Yorkers” leads people in Manhattan to act ruder

Answer 7

Self-fulfilling prophecy

Question 8

Disapproval or dislike of a specific person or group based on perceived differences compared to the rest of society

Answer 8

stigma

Question 9

Stigma fueled by stereotypes (cognition), prejudices (emotion), and discrimination (behavior)

Answer 9

social stigma

Question 10

When social stigma results in the internalization of negativity and feeling of rejection from society

Answer 10

self stigma

Question 11

Having a preconceived belief about individuals or groups based on their group membership

Answer 11

prejudice

Question 12

Stereotype vs prejudice

Answer 12

Stereotype represents a specific assumption while prejudice represents a generalized attitude

Question 13

Prejudice vs discrimination

Answer 13

Prejudice represents a general attitude while discrimination represents treating people unequally based on their group membership

Question 14

Frustrations can get channeled into prejudice and aggressive behaviors against a group

Example: Losing your job may lead to prejudice against minority immigrants

Answer 14

Frustration aggression hypothesis

Question 15

Those who are lacking compared to others will experience collective unrest, increasing prejudice
Example: Economic deprivation leads to prejudice

Answer 15

Hypothesis of relative deprivation

Question 16

Certain personality types such as authoritarian personalities are more prone to prejudice
In this case prejudice is used to protect their ego and avoid their own insecurities

Answer 16

Personality type hypothesis

Question 17

Occurs when an individual is made aware of a negative stereotype regarding the individual’s own group, causing the individual’s performance to suffer by awareness of this negative stereotype

Answer 17

stereotype threat

Question 18

Psychometric test designed to measure unconscious attitudes, including prejudice

Answer 18

Implicit association test

Question 19

Group to which an individual identifies and belongs
Other in-group members are usually viewed favorably

Answer 19

in-group

Question 20

Group to which an individual does not identify or belong
Out-group members are usually viewed unfavorably

Answer 20

out-group

Question 21

Comparison group to which an individual compares self as a model
Individual may or may not belong to this group

Answer 21

reference group

Question 22

Group favoritism

Answer 22

we view the in-group favorably but the out-group neutrally

Question 23

Group derogation

Answer 23

we view the in-group favorably but the out-group negatively, caused by a feeling of being threatened by the out-group

Question 24

The phenomenon where the group’s collective views tend to be more extreme than individuals within the group

Answer 24

Group polarization

Question 25

Tendency to attribute behavior to internal individual factors rather than complex external factors

Answer 25

Fundamental attribution error

Example: Underrecognition of complex socioeconomic barriers in the care of a complicated patient

Question 26

Tendency to believe that our own selves are victims of circumstance whereas other people are willful actors

Answer 26

Actor-observer bias

Question 27

Western vs Eastern cultural differences

Answer 27

Western cultures are more individualistic so success is attributed to internal factors whereas failure is attributed to external factors

Eastern cultures are more collectivist so both success and failure are attributed to external factors

Question 28

Tendency to attribute success to internal factors and failure to external factors, preserving our self-esteem

More common in individualistic societies.

Answer 28

Self-serving bias

Question 29

A world view in which one’s own culture is seen as inherently superior to others, which leads to judging all societies by your own culture’s standards

Answer 29

Ethnocentrism

Question 30

A world view in which universal right-or-wrong does not exist, and therefore all societies should be judged by their own cultural standards

Answer 30

cultural relativism

Question 31

Primacy vs recency effect

Answer 31

Primacy bias is based on strong retention of first impressions while recency bias is based on strong retention of most recent actions
This mirrors information retention when people can best remember the first and last items of a list

Question 32

Tendency to think that people that are good at one thing are good at everything
Example: People overrate the leadership skills of physically attractive people

Answer 32

Halo effect

Question 33

Tendency to think that people who are bad at one thing are bad at everything
Inverse of the halo effect

Answer 33

Reverse halo effect

Question 34

Represents the notion that good deeds are rewarded and bad deeds are punished

Answer 34

Just world hypothesis

Question 35

Problems with the just world hypothesis

Answer 35

Often does not hold up in reality, and people will either be in denial or re-interpret the situation
This can lead to fundamental attribution error. For example, blaming poor people for being poor rather than recognizing societal factors

Question 36

Attributing another’s behavior to internal factors, such as personality, instead of external or situational factors

Answer 36

Fundamental attribution error

Question 37

Theories of how we explain behaviors that happen around us, either resulting from internal or external causes

Answer 37

attribution theory

Question 38

Dispositional attribution

Answer 38

Assumption that a person’s behavior reflects their internal beliefs

Question 39

Situational attribution

Answer 39

Assumption that a person’s behavior reflects their external situational factors

Question 40

Optimism bias

Answer 40

Belief that bad things happen to others, not ourselves
In other words, underestimating the likelihood of bad things