perspectives & methods

Question 1

what are the 2 major questions when studying child development?

Answer 1

1. normative development: how do children develop skills, knowledge and personality?
2. individual differences: how do variations among children come about?

Question 2

nature vs nurture

Answer 2

nature (genetic factors): shapes traits and characteristics

nurture (envt factors): unbringing, culture, exp

overlap: gene-envt interaction

Question 3

define theory

Answer 3

an integrated set of statements that describe, explain and predict a behaviour

Question 4

define hypothesis

Answer 4

a prediction about a behaviour that is drawn from a theory

Question 5

what is the objective of science?

Answer 5

evaluating theories and hypotheses based on data

Question 6

what is the scientific method?

Answer 6

1. theory
2. generate hypothesis
3. collect data
4. analyse data
5. summarise data and report findings
6. confirm or modify theory based on results

Question 7

list 3 common methods of research

Answer 7

1. self-reports (questionnaires/surveys/interviews)
2. systematic observations (naturalistic/structured observations)
3. psychophysiology

Question 8

what are the pros and cons of administering questionnaires/surveys?

Answer 8

pros:
- quick way to gather alot of data
- standardised - easy comparison

cons:
- little depth
- presentation bias
- challenges in capturing developmental changes

presentation bias (aka esponse bias or respondent bias):
- systematic error that occurs in survey research when respondents provide inaccurate or misleading answers due to various factors related to how the questions are presented or framed
-undermines the validity and reliability of survey findings
- includes:
*Social Desirability Bias: provide answers that they believe are socially acceptable or favorable, rather than their true opinions or behaviors
*Acquiescence Bias: tendency to agree with statements or questions regardless of their actual beliefs or experiences
*Interviewer Bias: behavior or characteristics of the interviewer can influence respondents’ answers
*Question Wording and Order
*Response Scale Bias
*Cultural and Linguistic Bias (due to cultural diff/language barriers)

Question 9

what are the pros and cons of interviews?

Answer 9

pros:
- interviewee can express thoughts in own words
- comfortable setting
- flexible, can ask followup questions
- more depth in info

cons:
- not standardized
- presentation bias (interviewer effect where behaviour of interviewer affects responses)
- labor-intensive

Question 10

what are the pros and cons of naturalistic observations?

Answer 10

pros:
- realistic (high ecological validity)
- direct observation of behaviour
- social interaction

cons:
- low base rate of behaviour
- reactivity (if you know you are being observed, will behave differently)
- lack of control

Question 11

what are the pros and cons of structured observations?

Answer 11

pros:
- observed in the same context (controlled envt)
- directly observe specific behaviour of interest
- efficient for infrequent events (behaviour that doesn’t occur all the time)

cons:
- low ecological validity due to less natural
- reactivity due to diff in real-life situations

Question 12

what is observed when a study gather data in terms of psychophysiology?

Answer 12

• heart rate: interested/distressed
• EEG/ERP: states of arousal
• fMRI: specialised brain region

Question 13

what are the pros and cons of psychophysiology?

Answer 13

pros:
- objective
- mediation (how a 3rd variable affects/is affected by the other 2)

cons:
- time-consuming
- costly
- require theory to interpret findings
- complex data analysis

Question 14

what are the 4 basic types of research designs?

Answer 14

1. experimental
2. correlational
3. longitudinal
4. cross-sectional

Question 15

what is the aim of experimental designs?

Answer 15

to establish causal r/s (effect of IV on DV)

Question 16

the 2 groups in an experimental design are:
1. control group
2.

Answer 16

experimental group (out of ctrl group)

Question 17

what are 2 common ways to assign people into groups?

Answer 17

1. random assignment
2. matching via pre-existing characteristics (eg. gender/age)

Question 18

what is the conceptual definition of IVs and DVs?

Answer 18

theoretical variables as stated in hypothesis

Question 19

what is the operational definition of IVs and DVs?

Answer 19

practical realization of variables (translating conceptual variables into how they will be used in experiments) - concrete and measureable

Question 20

what does Bandura’s Bobo Doll study demonstrate?

Answer 20

• demonstrated that children learn by observing the behavior of others, particularly adults, and imitate those behaviors (social learning)
• children who observed an adult model aggressively interacting with a Bobo doll were more likely to exhibit similar aggressive behaviors towards the doll themselves (observational learning)

Question 21

does Bandura’s Bobo Doll study illustrate nature of nurture in the children’s behaviour?

Answer 21

nurture

social learning (imitation of adult’s aggressive behavior towards doll) causes children to also be aggressive towards the doll (social/observational learning)

Question 22

advantage of experiments

Answer 22

determines causality most accurately (whether IV has caused DV)

Question 23

what are some limitations of experiments?

Answer 23

1. ethical reasons
2. some IVs cannot be manipulated (eg. gender, race)
   - need to use natural groupings (eg. choosing to compare males against females without manipulating their gender. lacks full manipulation like true experiments, aka quasi-experiments)
   - can also do field research (observe without manipulation)
3. takes alot of time and resources

Question 24

what is the aim of correlational design?

Answer 24

to assess the direction and strength of r/s among variables in hypothesis

Question 25

fill in the blanks:

_____ research design assesses the direction and strength of r/s among variables in hypothesis.

a feature of this design is that variables are only observed with no ________ or intervention by researchers.

Answer 25

correlational; manipulation

Question 26

explain the correlation coefficient:
- range
- what does r=0 mean?
- absolute value indicates?
- sign indicates?

Answer 26

-1 < correlation coefficient (r) < 1

r=0, no r/s

absolute value -> strength of r/s

sign (+/-) -> direction of effect (positive/negative)

Question 27

does correlation = causation?

Answer 27

NO. correlation cannot infer causation. causation can only be inferred through experimental designs involving manipulation.

Question 28

what is longitudinal design?

Answer 28

examines behaviour of itnerest within the same group of participants over a period of time.

Question 29

what are the cons of longitudinal design?

Answer 29

• attrition / loss of participants
• substantial commitment of time and cost
• training effect
• changes in measurement techniques

Question 30

cross-sectional research design examines the behaviour of interest by comparing groups of participants at different ages in a particular point in time.

what are its pros and cons?

Answer 30

pros:
- time efficiency
- one-time assessment

cons:
- less sensitive to individual diff (cannot follow one’s development)
- cannot establish causation
- cohort effects

*Cohort effects: differences in characteristics or outcomes observed between groups of individuals who were born or experienced significant events during different time periods. These differences arise from the unique historical, social, and cultural contexts that individuals are exposed to during their formative years.