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Physiology > Physiology Exam #2 > Flashcards

Physiology Exam #2 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three basic functions of blood

A

Transportation, Regulation, and Protection

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2
Q

How does blood provide transportation?

A
  • Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen to cells
  • Blood carries absorbed products of digestions through the liver to the cells of the body
  • Metabolic wastes and other molecules not needed by the body are carried by the blood to the kidneys and excreted in urine
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3
Q

How does blood provide regulation?

A
  • Blood carries hormones
  • Provides temperature regulation
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4
Q

How does blood provide protection?

A
  • Clotting mechanism protects against blood loss when vessels are damaged
  • Immune function is performed by leukocytes that protect against pathogens
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5
Q

What is the total blood volume in the average-sized adult?

A

About 5 liters (4-6) constituting about 8% of the total body weight

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6
Q

What is blood leaving the heart referred to as?

A

Arterial blood (bright red because of high concentration of oxyhemoglobin - combination of oxygen and hemoglobin)

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7
Q

What is blood returning to the heart referred to as?

A

Venous blood (contains less oxygen - darker red than the oxygen-rich arterial blood)

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8
Q

Where is the blood distributed when centrifuged?

A
  • Heavier formed elements are packed into the bottom (red blood cells)
  • Buffy coat is in the middle (leukocytes and platelets)
  • Plasma is at the top
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9
Q

Formed elements and plasma constitute about how much of the total blood volume?

A

Formed elements constitute about 45% of the total blood volume and plasma accounts for the remaining 55%.

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10
Q

What is hematocrit?

A

The percentage of red blood cells volume to total blood volume in a centrifuged blood sample.

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11
Q

What are the hematocrit levels for women? For men?

A

36% to 46% for women and 41% to 53% in men.

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12
Q

The formed elements of blood include which two types of complete blood cells?

A

Erythrocytes and Leukocytes

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13
Q

What shape are erythrocytes and what function does it serve?

A

Flattened, biconcave discs - unique shape related to their function of transporting oxygen; provides an increased surface area through which gas can diffuse.

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14
Q

What parts of the cells are lacking in erythrocytes? How do they obtain energy?

A

They lack nuclei and mitochondria - they obtain energy through anaerobic metabolism

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15
Q

How long is the lifespan for erythrocytes?

A

120 days

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16
Q

How are older erythrocytes removed from the circulation?

A

By phagocytic cells in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow

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17
Q

Where are red blood cells produced and how many are produced in a day?

A

In the bone marrow - 200 billion each day

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18
Q

How do leukocytes move? What function does this serve?

A

In an amoeboid fashion - leukocytes can squeeze through pores in capillary walls and move to a site of infection (diapedesis or extravasation)

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19
Q

What are the smallest of the formed elements?

A

Platelets (thrombocytes)

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20
Q

How long do platelets survive?

A

5 to 9 days - destroyed by the spleen and liver

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21
Q

What role do platelets play?

A

Blood clotting - they constitute most of the mass of the clot

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22
Q

What would happen to a cell in a hypertonic solution?

A

Cell would shrivel up (more solutes outside the cell than inside) caused by dehydration

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23
Q

What would happen to a cell in a isotonic solution?

A

Remain the same - equal movement back and forth

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24
Q

What would happen to a cell in a hypotonic solution?

A

Cell would swell and possibly burst (too much water consumption with no electrolytes can cause this)

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25
Q

What is hemoglobin?

A

The combination of heme pigment and protein with red blood cells that acts to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

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26
Q

What causes an increase in erythropoiesis (formation of erythrocytes)?

A

Kidneys detect low oxygen in the red blood cells and communicate that an increase of production is needed.

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27
Q

What are antigens?

A

Certain molecules on the surface of all cells in the body that can be recognized as foreign by the immune system of another individual.

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28
Q

Which blood types have which antigens on them?

A
  • A blood type has the A antigen
  • B blood type has the B antigen
  • AB blood type has both A and B antigens
  • O blood type has no antigens
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29
Q

What are antibodies?

A

Part of the immune response and a class of proteins that are secreted by lymphocytes that bond in a specific fashion with antigens

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30
Q

Which blood types have which antibodies on them?

A
  • A blood type has the B antibody
  • B blood type has the A antibody
  • AB blood type has no antibodies
  • O blood type has both A and B antibodies
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31
Q

What is agglutination?

A

The clumping of cells (usually erythrocytes) as a result of specific chemical interaction between surface antigens and antibodies.

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32
Q

What is another group of antigens found on the red blood cells of most people called?

A

Rh factor

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33
Q

In reference to medical significance, what is the Rh factor indicated as?

A

Rho(D)

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34
Q

If the Rh antigen is present on a person’s red blood cell, are they Rh positive or negative?

A

Rh positive

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35
Q

What is the order of leukocyte concentrations? (Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas)

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Lymphocytes
  • Monocyte
  • Eosinophil
  • Basophil
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36
Q

What is hemostasis?

A

The cessation of bleeding

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37
Q

What happens during vasoconstriction?

A

Veins are made smaller, volume of blood to the area is decreased downstream

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38
Q

When fibrinogen is converted to fibrin, which pathway is fastest?

A

Extrinsic

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39
Q

Which vitamin is needed by the liver to make several of the needed clotting factors?

A

Vitamin K

40
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart and what are their roles?

A
  • Right atrium: receives deoxygenated blood from the body
  • Left atrium: receives oxygenated blood from the lungs
  • Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs
  • Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body
41
Q

Which circuit is between the heart and lungs?

A

Pulmonary

42
Q

Which circuit is between the heart and body tissue?

A

Systemic

43
Q

Pulmonary: blood pumps to lungs via..

A

pulmonary arteries

44
Q

Pulmonary: blood returns to heart via..

A

Pulmonary veins

45
Q

Systemic: blood pumps to body tissues via..

A

aorta

46
Q

Systemic: blood returns to heart via..

A

superior and inferior vena cava

47
Q

Which valves are located between the atria and the ventricles and prevent backflow?

A

Atrioventricular (AV) valves

48
Q

AV valve between right atrium and ventricle

A

Tricuspid

49
Q

AV valve between left atrium and ventricle

A

Bicuspid (mitral)

50
Q

What prevents the AV valves from everting (going backwards)

A

Papillary muscles and chordae tendineae

51
Q

Which valves are located between the ventricles and arteries leaving the heart; preventing backflow

A

Semilunar valves

52
Q

Semilunar valve between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk

A

Pulmonary

53
Q

Semilunar valve between left ventricle and aorta

A

Aortic

54
Q

What is systole?

A

Contraction of heart muscles

55
Q

What is diastole?

A

Relaxation of heart muscles

56
Q

What is end-diastolic volume?

A

Total volume of blood in the ventricles at the end of diastole (relaxation) - the chamber is at its largest size.

57
Q

What is end-systolic volume?

A

The amount of blood left in the left ventricle after systole (contraction) - chamber at its smallest size

58
Q

What is the stroke volume?

A

The amount of blood ejected

59
Q

What is the average cardiac rate?

A

75 beats/min, each cycle lasts 0.8 sec

60
Q

What happens to the blood flow as ventricles relax?

A
  • Pressure drops inside the ventricles
  • Semilunar valves close as blood attempts to back up into the ventricles from the vessels
  • AV valves open (between atria and ventricles)
  • Blood flows from atria to ventricles
61
Q

What happens to the blood flow as ventricles contract?

A
  • AV valves close as blood attempts to back up into the atria
  • Pressure rises inside of the ventricles
  • Semilunar valves open and blood flows into great vessels
62
Q

What is the blood flow pathway through the chambers?

A
  • Travels from the right atrium through the pulmonary circuit
  • Then travels through systemic circuit
  • Back to starting point
63
Q

What are cardiac muscles interconnected by?

A

Gap junctions called intercalated discs (makes it function as a single unit)

64
Q

What is the myocardium or functional syncytium?

A

The area of the heart that contracts from one stimulation event

65
Q

What separates the atria and the ventricles?

A

They are separated electrically by the fibrous skeleton

66
Q

What is automaticity?

A

Automatic nature of the heartbeat

67
Q

What is the sinoatrial node (SA node) and where is it located?

A

Known as the pacemaker; located in the right atrium and is a grouping of specialized cells

68
Q

What are the AV node and Purkinje fibers?

A

Secondary pacemakers or ectopic pacemakers; slower rate than the “normal sinus rhythm”

69
Q

What is pacemaker potential?

A

A slow, spontaneous depolarization; also called diastolic depolarization - between heartbeats, triggered by hyperpolarization

70
Q

What do HCN (hyperpolarization cyclic nucleotide) (aka funny channels and/or leaky channels) do?

A

Open in response to hyperpolarization and allow Na+ to enter to produce depolarization

71
Q

What do parasympathetic neurons secrete and do?

A

They secrete acetylcholine, which opens K+ channels (causing an increase in hyperpolarization) and slows the heart rate.

72
Q

Steps of the Conduction System of the Heart

A
  • Action potentials spread via intercalated discs between right and left atria
  • SA node to AV node to stimulate atrial contraction
  • AV node at base of right atrium and bundle of His (AV bundle) conduct towards the ventricles
  • In the interventricular septum, the bundle of His divides into right and left bundle branches
  • Branch bundles become Purkinje fibers, which stimulate ventricular contraction upward
73
Q

When do the action potentials slow down and speed up during conduction of impulses?

A
  • Action potentials from the SA node spread rapidly (spreads to surrounding myocardial cells)
  • At the AV node, things slow down
  • Speed picks back up in the bundle of His
74
Q

What is repolarization?

A
  • Calcium concentrations in cytoplasm reduced by active transport back into the SR
  • Extrusion of calcium through the plasma membrane by the sodium calcium exchanger (NCX) - secondary active transport
  • Primary active transport of calcium ATPase pump
  • Myocardium relaxes
75
Q

What does the electrocardiograph do?

A

Records the electrical activity of the heart by picking up the movement of ions in body tissues in response to activity - records electrical events leading to contraction and relaxation

76
Q

What does P wave read?

A

Atrial depolarization

77
Q

What does P-Q wave read?

A

Atrial systole

78
Q

What does QRS wave read?

A

Ventricular depolarization

79
Q

What does S-T segment read?

A

Plateau phase, ventricular systole

80
Q

What does T wave read?

A

Ventricular repolarization

81
Q

Heart Sounds - when does the “lub” occur?

A

After the QRS wave as the AV valves close

82
Q

Heart Sounds - when does the “dub” occur?

A

At the beginning of the T wave as the SL valves close

83
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

The amount of blood ejected by each ventricle in 1 minute

84
Q

What is the equation for finding cardiac output?

A

heart rate x stroke volume = cardiac output

85
Q

What is the amount of cardiac output at rest?

A

4 to 6 L/min

86
Q

What is cardiac reserve?

A

The difference between a person’s maximum and resting CO levels

87
Q

How can you increase cardiac output?

A
  • Increase stroke volume
  • Increase heart rate
  • Increase both
88
Q

What are the three variables responsible for regulation of stroke volume?

A
  • End diastolic volume (EDV): also called preload (stoke volume is increased with increased EDV)
  • Total peripheral resistance: frictional resistance in the arteries (called afterload - increase in resistance decreases stroke volume)
  • Contractility: strength of ventricular contraction (stroke volume increases with increased contractility)
89
Q

What is ejection fraction?

A

When 60% of the EDV has been ejected

90
Q

What factors affect blood pressure?

A
  • Blood volume
  • Stroke volume
  • Total peripheral resistance
  • Cardiac rate
    (Increase in any of these will increase blood pressure)
91
Q

How is blood pressure measured and what instrument is used?

A

Measured in mmHg and sphygmomanometer

92
Q

What are sounds of Korotkoff?

A

Turbulent flow of blood in the brachial artery that can be heard using a stethoscope

93
Q

How is blood pressure taken?

A
  • Cuff is inflated to beyond systolic blood pressure to pinch off the brachial artery
  • As pressure is released, the first sound is heard at systole and a reading can be taken
  • The last Korotkoff sound is heard when the pressure in the cuff reaches diastolic pressure, and a second reading can be taken - laminar flow returns which has no sound
94
Q

What is the average blood pressure?

A

120/80

95
Q

What does a fall in blood pressure cause?

A
  • Increased sympathetic
  • Decreased parasympathetic
  • Increased heart rate and vasoconstriction of the vessels

Physiology (6 decks)

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