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Physiology > Physiology Exam Review #5 > Flashcards

Physiology Exam Review #5 Flashcards

1
Q

What kind of process is digestion?

A

It is a multistep process and is both chemical and physical in nature

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2
Q

What is happening during the hydrolysis reaction within digestion?

A

Digestion is breaking down polymers into monomer building blocks

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3
Q

What are polymers?

A

Complex structures (whole protein - carbohydrates, fats, and proteins)

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4
Q

What are monomers?

A

The broken down simpler forms of polymers

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5
Q

What helps in taking monomers into the bloodstream to be used by the cells?

A

Absorption - which takes place in the lining of the gut

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6
Q

This tract is open at both ends and is continuous with the environment - considered “outside” of the body

A

The digestive tract

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7
Q

This type of transport allows for specialization of function along the digestive tract

A

One-way transport

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8
Q

Term that means movement of food through the tract

A

Motility

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9
Q

Term that means taking food into the mouth

A

Ingestion

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10
Q

Term that means chewing and mixing food with saliva

A

Mastication

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11
Q

Term that means swallowing

A

Deglutition

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12
Q

Term that means wave-like, one-way movement through tract

A

Peristalsis

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13
Q

Term that means churning and mixing while moving forward

A

Segmentation

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14
Q

This digestive tract function involves digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid, mucus, water, and bicarbonate

A

Exocrine secretion

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15
Q

This digestive tract function involves hormones that regulate digestion

A

Endocrine secretion

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16
Q

This term means breaking down food into smaller units, both physically and chemically

A

Digestion

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17
Q

This term means passing broken-down food into blood or lymph

A

Absorption

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18
Q

These cells within the digestive tract prevent swallowed pathogens from entering the body

A

Simple columnar epithelium with tight junctions

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19
Q

This tract is about 30 feet long, from mouth to anus

A

Gastrointestinal tract (GI tract, alimentary canal)

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20
Q

What are the accessory organs of the digestive tract?

A

Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas

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21
Q

This layer of the alimentary tract in the inner secretory and absorptive layer; which may be folded to increase surface area - also the location of goblet cells

A

Mucosa

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22
Q

This layer of the alimentary tract is very vascular in order to pick up nutrients, and also has some glands and nerve plexuses

A

Submucosa

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23
Q

This layer of the alimentary tract is made of smooth muscle and is responsible for peristalsis and segmentation; contains the myenteric plexus for control by the ANS

A

Muscularis

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24
Q

This layer of the alimentary tract is the outer binding and protective layer where visceral peritoneum covers the organs and the parietal peritoneum lines the abdominal cavity

A

Serosa

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25
Q

What are the two extrinsic regulations of the GI tract?

A

Parasympathetic division and sympathetic division

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26
Q

This nerve that is part of the parasympathetic division stimulates the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, pancreas, gallbladder, and proximal part of the large intestine

A

The vagus nerve

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27
Q

These nerves stimulate the distal large intestine

A

Spinal nerves in sacral region

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28
Q

This division of the extrinsic regulation reduces peristalsis and secretion, and stimulates contraction of sphincters

A

Sympathetic division

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29
Q

What takes place in intrinsic regulation?

A
  • Intrinsic sensory neurons in gut wall help in intrinsic regulation via separate enteric nervous system
  • Paracrine receptors
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30
Q

This contains mucus - an antimicrobial agent - and salivary amylase - which is a carbohydrate digesting enzyme - to start digestion of starch

A

Saliva

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31
Q

This involves coordinated contraction of 25 pairs of muscles in the mouth, pharynx, larynx, and esophagus

A

Deglutition

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32
Q

What are the three parts of deglutition?

A
  • Oral: voluntary; muscles of mouth and tongue mix food with saliva to form a bolus
  • Pharyngeal: involuntary; initiated by receptors in the posterior oral cavity and oropharynx
  • Esophageal: automatic; controlled by the swallowing center of the brain stem; bolus is moved down esophagus to stomach via peristalsis
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33
Q

This lifts to cover the nasopharynx and the epiglottis covers the vocal cords during the pharyngeal part of deglutition

A

Uvula

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34
Q

A condition that occurs when part of the normal stratified squamous epithelium of the esophagus is replaced by columnar epithelium

A

Barrett’s Esophagus

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35
Q

What are the functions of the stomach?

A
  • Stores food
  • Churns food to mix with gastric secretions
  • Begins protein digestion
  • Kills bacteria in the food
  • Movies food into small intestine in the form of a pasty material called chyme
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36
Q

What is the upper region of the stomach called?

A

Fundus

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37
Q

What is the lower region of the stomach called?

A

Body

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38
Q

What is the distal region of the stomach called?

A

Pyloric region; ends at the pyloric sphincter

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39
Q

What are the folds in the lining of the stomach called?

A

Rugae

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40
Q

These secretory cells secrete mucus to help protect stomach lining from acid

A

Mucus neck cells

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41
Q

These secretory cells secrete HCl acid and intrinsic factor - which helps the small intestine absorb vitamin B12

A

Parietal cells

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42
Q

Theses cells secrete pepsinogen, which is the inactive form of the protein digesting enzymes

A

Chief (zygomatic) cells

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43
Q

These cells secrete the hormone gastrin

A

G cells

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44
Q

These cells secrete the hormone somatostatin

A

D cells

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45
Q

These cells secrete the hormone ghrelin that signals the brain to regulate hunger and body weight

A

P/D1 cells

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46
Q

What is the only stomach function essential for life?

A

The production of intrinsic factor that is needed for intestinal absorption of vitamin B12, which is necessary for RBC production

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47
Q

Highly acidic mixture of exocrine gland secretions and a large amount of water

A

Gastric juice

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48
Q

What are at the base of folds that lead to gastric glands - which contain several types of secretory cells

A

Gastric pits

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49
Q

What are the functions of HCl in the stomach when a drop in pH hits 2?

A
  • Ingested proteins are denatured (allows enzymes access)
  • Pepsinogen is converted to active pepsin (digests proteins)
  • Serves as the optimal pH for pepsin activity
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50
Q

What is the function of pepsin in the stomach?

A

Catalyzes the hydrolysis of peptide bonds in the ingested proteins

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51
Q

Acid and pepsin could damage the stomach lining - what are the defenses to help prevent this?

A
  • Adherent layer of mucus with alkaline bicarbonate
  • Tight junctions between epithelial cells
  • Rapid epithelial mitosis that replaces epithelium every three days
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52
Q

What begins digestion in the stomach?

A

Proteins

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53
Q

What begins digestion in the mouth but since salivary amylase is not active at pH 2, this activity stops in the stomach

A

Starches

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54
Q

What are the only common substances to be absorbed in the stomach?

A

Alcohol and NSAIDs (aspirin)

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55
Q

What organ starts at the pyloric sphincter and ends at the ileocecal valve and is about 12 ft long?

A

The small intestine

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56
Q

What are the three sections of the small intestine?

A

Duodenum, Jejunum, and Ileum

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57
Q

Which organ completes the digestion of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats?

A

The small intestine

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58
Q

Which part of the small intestine absorbs sugars, lipids, amino acids, calcium, and iron?

A

Duodenum and Jejunum

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59
Q

Which part of the small intestine absorbs bile salts, vitamin B12, water and electrolytes

A

Ileum

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60
Q

What is required for the activation of the protein-digesting enzyme trypsin, which comes from the pancreas and activates other pancreatic enzymes

A

Enterokinase (enteropeptidase)

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61
Q

Which enzymes are needed for disaccharidase?

A

Sucrase, Maltase, and Lactase

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62
Q

Which enzymes are needed for peptidase?

A

Aminopeptidase and enterokinase

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63
Q

Which enzymes are needed for phosphatase?

A

Ca2+, Mg2+ - ATPase and Alkaline phosphatase

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64
Q

What are the functions of the large intestine?

A
  • Absorption of water, electrolytes, vitamin K, and some B vitamins
  • Production of vitamin K and B vitamins via microbial organisms
  • Storage of feces
65
Q

What are the several thousand different species of bacteria living in the large intestine called?

A

Microflora or intestinal microbiota

66
Q

What is it called when the bacteria in the large intestine benefit and contain enzymes that digest dietary fiber that we can’t hydrolyze into monosaccharides

A

Commensal

67
Q

What is it called when the bacteria in the large intestine is benefitted along with us

A

Mutualistic

68
Q

What is the reddish brown gland located immediately inferior to the diaphragm - on the right side of the body

A

Liver

69
Q

What is the function of the liver?

A

Secretes bile which contributes to digestion

70
Q

A pear-shaped sac on the underside of the liver

A

Gallbladder

71
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder?

A

Serves to store and concentrate bile by absorbing water and electrolytes

72
Q

Yellow-green fluid containing minerals, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, bile pigments, and bile acids

A

Bile

73
Q

Principal pigment derived from the decomposition of hemoglobin

A

Bilirubin

74
Q

What is responsible for the brown color of feces

A

Bacteria in large intestine metabolizing bilirubin to urobilinogen

75
Q

Steroids synthesized from cholesterol that aid in fat digestion and absorption

A

Bile acids (bile salts)

76
Q

How much bile does the liver secrete daily?

A

500 to 1,000 mL

77
Q

80% of bile acids are reabsorbed where?

A

In the ileum and then returned to the liver

78
Q

What cells absorb and re-secrete bile acids?

A

Hepatocytes

79
Q

Route of secretion, reabsorption, and re-secretion of bile acids two or more times during digestion of an average meal

A

Enterohepatic circulation

80
Q

20% of the bile acids are excreted in ______

A

the feces - which is aided by soluble fiber

81
Q

What organ synthesizes new bile acids from cholesterol to replace those lost in feces

A

The liver

82
Q

What are gallstones composed of?

A

Cholesterol, calcium carbonate, and bilirubin

83
Q

Spongy retroperitoneal gland posterior to greater curvature of stomach

A

Pancreas

84
Q

What is the endocrine portion of the pancreas responsible for?

A

Pancreatic islets that secrete insulin and glucagon - concentrated in the tail of the gland

85
Q

What is the majority of the pancreas?

A

The exocrine portion - secretes pancreatic juice

86
Q

Alkaline mixture of water, enzymes, zymogens/proenzymes, sodium bicarbonate, and other electrolytes

A

Pancreatic juice

87
Q

What is the function of bicarbonate in the pancreas?

A

Buffers HCl arriving from the stomach

88
Q

This stimulates pancreatic acinar cells to secrete enzymes during cephalic phase of gastric control even before food is swallowed

A

Acetylcholine (ACh)

89
Q

Secreted by mucosa of duodenum in response to arrival of fats in the small intestine

A

Cholecystokinin (CKK)

90
Q

Released from duodenum in response to acidic chyme arriving from the stomach - also raises pH to the level required for activity of the pancreatic and intestinal digestive enzymes

A

Secretin

91
Q

Oxygen consumed by a relaxed, awake person, in comfortable temperature, 12 to 14 hours after eating (this can be affected by age, sex, body surface area, and thyroid activity)

A

Basal metabolic rate

92
Q

What are the water-soluble vitamins and cannot be stored in the body?

A

Vitamins B and C

93
Q

What are the fat-soluble vitamins and can be stored in the body?

A

Vitamins A, D, E, and K

94
Q

What are molecules with unpaired electrons?

A

Free radicals

95
Q

Regulatory molecules secreted by adipocytes that affect hunger, metabolism, and insulin sensitivity

A

Adipokines

96
Q

This is secreted by the stomach when it is empty - when the stomach is full, this is reduced

A

Ghrelin

97
Q

These levels rise during and right after a meal, suppresses hunger, and is the antagonist to ghrelin

A

Cholecystokinin (CKK)

98
Q

These reduce appetite and stimulates release of MSH from arcuate nucleus

A

Polypeptide YY (PYY)

99
Q

This reduces hunger and controls hunger for long term - the more adipose tissue you have, the more of this you secrete

A

Leptin

100
Q

This reduces hunger indirectly by increasing the storage of fat (which results in leptin production)

A

Insulin

101
Q

Energy expended to adapt in ambient temperature and digestion/absorption of food

A

Adaptive thermogenesis

102
Q

Where do germ cells or gametes (sperm and ova) form?

A

In the gonads - testes and ovaries

103
Q

What is the process that an individual progresses?

A

Zygote –> embryo –> fetus

104
Q

What are the copulatory organs for males and females?

A

Penis and vagina

105
Q

What are the primary sex organs for males and females?

A

Gonads - which produce gametes (testes and ovaries)

106
Q

Organs other than gonads that are necessary for reproduction

A

Secondary sex organs

107
Q

What are the male secondary sex organs?

A

System of ducts, glands, and penis

108
Q

What are the female secondary sex organs?

A

Uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina

109
Q

What is the term for 23 chromosomes?

A

Haploid

110
Q

What is the term for 23 pairs of chromosomes?

A

Diploid

111
Q

The sex of a child is determined by the contributing _____

A

sperm

112
Q

Which sex has two X chromosomes

A

Female

113
Q

Which sex has an X and a Y chromosome

A

Male

114
Q

What is the signal that determines embryonic gonads to become either testes or ovaries

A

Testis-determining factor (TDF)

115
Q

Which cells begin making large amounts of androgen (for testosterone) about 8 weeks after fertilization

A

Leydig cells

116
Q

Puberty begins with a release of what?

A

LH hormone

117
Q

This is secreted by adipose cells and is required for the onset of puberty

A

Leptin

118
Q

This is where spermatogenesis occurs

A

Seminiferous tubules

119
Q

This hormone receptor is found on Sertoli cells

A

FSH

120
Q

Which hormone influences spermatogenesis

A

FSH

121
Q

This is where Leydig cells make testosterone and is also filled with blood and lymphatic capillaries

A

Interstitial tissue

122
Q

Which hormone receptor is found on Leydig cells

A

LH

123
Q

What is secreted in response to LH

A

Testosterone

124
Q

What is the maturation of spermatids into functioning spermatozoa called

A

Spermatogenesis

125
Q

The site of sperm maturation and storage - where sperm becomes motile

A

The epididymis

126
Q

Fluid that contains fructose - energy for sperm

A

Seminal fluid

127
Q

Fluid that contains citric acid, calcium, and vesiculase

A

Prostate fluid

128
Q

An enzyme that causes semen to coagulate after ejaculation

A

Vesiculase

129
Q

Causes the semen to become liquid, freeing the sperm

A

Fibrinolysis

130
Q

The movement of semen into the urethra

A

Emission

131
Q

The site of oocyte and sex steroid production

A

Ovaries

132
Q

These have fimbriae that partially wrap around the ovaries and “catch” the oocyte ovulation

A

Fallopian tubes

133
Q

The site of embryonic development

A

Uterus

134
Q

The inner layer of the uterus - where the embryo implants and develops

A

Endometrium

135
Q

The middle muscular layer of the uterus

A

Myometrium

136
Q

The outer connective tissue layer of the uterus

A

Perimetrium

137
Q

The narrow bottom region of the uterus

A

Cervix

138
Q

This hormone stimulates monthly cohorts of about 24 oocytes to complete meiosis I

A

FSH

139
Q

Large daughter cell that is the product of meiosis I

A

Secondary oocyte

140
Q

This is the smaller cell that ultimately disintegrates - a means of discarding the extra set of haploid chromosomes

A

First polar body

141
Q

Where are primary oocytes contained

A

Within primary follicles that have one layer of cells

142
Q

Continued growth results in fused vesicles to form a single antrum called

A

Mature Graafian follicle

143
Q

In the Graafian follicle, what are the cell layers called that form around the oocyte

A

Corona radiata and zona pellucida

144
Q

Continued development of one Graafian follicle occurs because of stimulation of which hormones

A

FSH and Estradiol

145
Q

Which follicle is protected from atresis and forms a bulge on the surface of the ovary

A

A mature Graafian follicle

146
Q

After ovulation, the remaining follicle becomes this

A

Corpus Luteum (yellow body)

147
Q

Which hormones does the corpus luteum secrete?

A

Estradiol and progesterone - play a role in the menstrual cycle and maintaining a pregnancy

148
Q

Toward the end of a non-fertile cycle, the corpus luteum regresses to become what

A

A nonfunctional corpus albicans

149
Q

This ovarian phase is characterized by increasing levels of estradiol production from granulosa cells

A

Follicular phase

150
Q

During this ovarian phase, FSH causes the Graafian follicle to bulge out of the ovary wall

A

Ovulation

151
Q

During the ovarian luteal phase, high levels of estradiol and progesterone feedback on the pituitary gland and inhibit these hormones

A

FSH and LH

152
Q

During this phase, follicle development is shut down to prevent further ovulation long enough to give the secondary oocyte a chance to be fertilized

A

Ovarian luteal phase

153
Q

A decrease in the levels of these hormones stimulate the sloughing of the endometrium and menstruation

A

Estradiol and progesterone

154
Q

How are capacitated sperm guided to the oocyte

A

By chemotaxis and thermotaxis

155
Q

Where does fertilization occur

A

In the fallopian tubes

156
Q

What does the sperm contribute during fertilization

A

1/2 chromosomes, centrosome, and mitochondria

157
Q

What does the egg contribute during fertilization

A

1/2 chromosomes, cytoplasm, and all other organelles

158
Q

Which hormone is secreted by the blastocyst and is needed for the maintenance of the endometrium

A

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

159
Q

This hormone has the same effect as LH and maintains the Corpus Luteum, maintains production of estrogen and progesterone

A

Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)

Physiology (6 decks)

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