Physiology Exam Review #4 Flashcards
(249 cards)
1
Q
What do all body processes directly or indirectly require?
A
ATP
2
Q
What does most ATP synthesis require and produce?
A
Requires oxygen; produces carbon dioxide
3
Q
A system of tubes that delivers air to the lungs
A
The respiratory system
4
Q
Which gases diffuse into and out of the blood?
A
Oxygen diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out
5
Q
Which systems work together to deliver oxygen to the tissues and remove carbon dioxide?
A
Respiratory and cardiovascular systems - disorders of the lungs directly affect the heart and vice versa
6
Q
What are the respiratory and cardiovascular systems considered jointly as?
A
The cardiopulmonary system
7
Q
Which systems collaborate to regulate the body’s acid-base balance?
A
The respiratory and the urinary systems
8
Q
A term used to refer to ventilation of the lungs (breathing)
A
Respiration
9
Q
What are the functions of respiration?
A
- Gas exchange: oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged between blood and air
- Communication: speech and other vocalizations
- Olfaction: sense of smell
- Acid-Base balance: influences pH of body fluids by eliminating carbon dioxide
- Blood pressure regulation: by helping in synthesis of angiotensin II
- Blood and lymph flow: breathing creates pressure gradients between thorax and abdomen that promote flow of lymph and blood
- Expulsion of abdominal contents: breath-holding assists in urination, defecation, and childbirth
10
Q
Increasing pressure in the thorax cavity
A
Valsalva maneuver
11
Q
Which zone gets air to the respiratory zone
A
The conducting zone
12
Q
Which tract is in the head and neck (nose through larynx)
A
Upper respiratory tract
13
Q
Which tract is in the thorax (trachea through major bronchioles)
A
Lower respiratory tract
14
Q
Which zone is the site of gas exchange
A
Respiratory zone
15
Q
The alveoli and respiratory bronchioles are located in which zone?
A
The respiratory zone
16
Q
What are the functions of the conducting zone?
A
- Transports air to the respiratory zone
- Voice production in the larynx as air passes over the vocal folds
- Warms, humidifies, filters, and cleans the air
17
Q
What does the mucus secreted by cells of the conducting zone do?
A
The mucus traps small particles
18
Q
What is it called when mucus moves along the cilia that beat in a coordinated fashion to the pharynx - this is where it can be cleared by swallowing or expectorating
A
Mucociliary escalator
19
Q
What is the process called when mucus is taken to the pharynx to be cleared by swallowing or expectorating
A
Mucociliary clearance
20
Q
In which disease does the mucociliary escalator not function properly due to the fact that abnormal mucus is too thick for the cilia to properly clear
A
Cystic Fibrosis
21
Q
Which preventable cause damages cilia and reduces mucociliary clearance
A
Smoking
22
Q
These have air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs
A
Alveoli
23
Q
How many alveoli are there?
A
300 million
24
Q
What is the purpose for having so many alveoli?
A
To provide a large surface area (760 square feet) to increase diffusion rate
25
What is one-cell layer thick but has great tensile strength (the ability to expand without ripping or popping)
Alveoli
26
What forms clusters at the ends of respiratory bronchioles
Alveoli
27
What keeps the alveoli clean
Resident macrophages - they may engulf carbon dust
28
Which type of alveolar cell has 95 to 97% surface area where gas exchange occurs
Type I
29
Which type of alveolar cell secretes pulmonary surfactant and reabsorbs sodium and water, preventing fluid buildup
Type II
30
Movement of air from higher to lower pressure, between the conducting zone and the terminal bronchioles, occurs as a result of what
The pressure difference between the two ends of the airways
31
Which cavity contains the heart, trachea, esophagus, and thymus within the central mediastinum
The thoracic cavity
32
What fills the rest of the thoracic cavity
The lungs
33
What lines the thoracic wall
The parietal pleura
34
What covers the lungs
The visceral pleura
35
What is the potential space between the parietal and visceral pleura
The intrapleural space
36
What contains a thin layer of fluid, secreted by the parietal pleura
The intrapleural space
37
What was formed as a filtrate from blood capillaries in the parietal pleura and is drained into lymphatic capillaries
The thin layer of fluid within the intrapleural space
38
What is the main function of the fluid within the intrapleural space
To serve as a lubricant so that the lungs can slide relative to the chest during breathing
39
A dome-shaped skeletal muscle of respiration that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
The diaphragm
40
Cavity below the diaphragm that contains the liver, pancreas, gastrointestinal tract, spleen, genitourinary tract, and other organs
The abdominopelvic cavity
41
Which physical property of the lungs allows them to expand when stretched, and ease to which they expand under pressure
Lung compliance
42
Which physical property of the lung is reduced by factors that produce a resistance to distention such as infiltration of connective tissue proteins in pulmonary fibrosis
Lung compliance
43
Which physical property of the lungs allow them to return to initial size after being stretched, and is the result of them to have lots of elastin fibers
Lung elasticity
44
Which physical property of the lung is always happening since they are stuck to the thoracic wall
Elastic tension
45
Tension ____ during inspiration and is ____ by elastic recoil during expiration
Increases, reduced
46
Which physical property of the lung is related to the resistance of distension and exerted by fluid secreted on the alveoli
Surface tension
47
- A surface active agent
- Secreted into the alveoli by type II alveolar cells
- Consists of hydrophobic protein and phospholipids
- Reduces surface tension between water molecules
- More concentrated as alveoli get smaller during expiration
- Prevents collapse
- Allows a residual volume of air to remain in lungs
Surfactant
48
Consists of a repetitive cycle of inspiration (inhaling) and expiration (exhaling)
Breathing (pulmonary ventilation)
49
One complete inspiration and expiration
Respiratory cycle
50
Type of respiration that happens at rest, is effortless, and automatic
Quiet respiration
51
Type of respiration that is deep, rapid breathing, such as during exercise
Forced respiration
52
What does the flow of air in and out of the lung depend on
Depends on a pressure difference between air within the lungs and outside the body
53
Which muscles change lung volumes and create difference in pressure relative to the atmosphere
The respiratory muscles
54
What is the prime mover of respiration
The diaphragm
55
___ flattens diaphragm, enlarging thoracic cavity and pulling air into lungs
Contraction
56
____ allows diaphragm to bulge upward again, compressing the lungs and expelling air
Relaxation
57
Which organ accounts for two-thirds of airflow
The diaphragm
58
Which muscles of respiration act mainly in forced respiration
Accessory muscles
59
An energy-saving passive process achieved by the elasticity of the lungs and thoracic cage
Normal quiet expiration
60
As muscles relax, structures recoil to original shape and original (smaller) size of thoracic cavity, which results in _____
airflow out of the lungs
61
What raises the pressure within the alveoli above the atmospheric pressure and pushes the air out
The decrease in lung volume
62
Greatly increased abdominal pressure pushes viscera up against diaphragm increasing thoracic pressure, forcing air out
Forced expiration
63
Which expiration is important for "abdominal breathing"
Forced expiration
64
Mechanisms of breathing - volume of thoracic cavity (and lungs) increases vertically when diaphragm contracts (flattens) and laterally when parasternal and external intercostals raise the ribs
Inspiration
65
If the thoracic and lung volume increase and then intrapulmonary pressure decreases, then air goes ___
in
66
Mechanisms of breathing - volume of thoracic cavity (and lungs) decreases vertically when diaphragm relaxes (dome) and laterally when external and parasternal intercostals relax for quiet expiration or internal intercostals contract in forced expiration to lower the ribs
Expiration
67
If the thoracic and lung volume decreases and then intrapulmonary pressure increases, then air goes ___
out
68
Subject breathes into and out of a device that records volume and frequency of air movement on a spirogram
Spirometry
69
What pulmonary function test can measure lung volume and capacities and can diagnose restrictive and obstructive lung disorders
Spirometry
70
Lung volume - amount of air expired or inspired in each breath of quiet breathing (normal/relaxed breathing)
Tidal volume
71
Lung volume - amount of air that can be forced out after tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume
72
Lung volume - amount of air that can be forced in after tidal volume
Inspiratory reserve volume
73
Lung volume - amount of air left in lungs after maximum expiration
Residual volume
74
Lung capacity - maximum amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a maximum inhalation
Vital capacity
75
Lung capacity - amount of gas in the lungs after a maximum inspiration
Total lung capacity
76
Lung capacity - amount of gas that can be inspired after a normal expiration
Inspiratory capacity
77
Lung capacity - amount of air in lungs after a quiet expiration
Functional residual capacity
78
As fresh air is inhaled, it is mixed with air in the ____
anatomical dead zone
79
This area comprises the conducting zone of the respiratory system and is where no gas exchange occurs
The anatomical dead space/zone
80
Inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume + tidal volume
Vital capacity
81
Residual volume + expiratory reserve volume
Functional residual capacity
82
Tidal volume x breaths per minute (approximately 6L/min)
Total minute volume
83
In which disorder is vital capacity reduced but forced expiration is normal, there is decreased compliance, inhalation is restricted, and it makes it difficult to fill lungs with air
Restrictive disorders
84
In which disorder is vital capacity normal but forced expiration is reduced, there is decreased elastance, and is due to lung damage or narrowing of airways, which makes it difficult to fill lungs with air
Obstructive disorders
85
This is an obstructive disorder that has symptoms of dyspnea and wheezing. Obstruction of air flow caused by inflammation, mucus secretion, and constriction of bronchioles.
Asthma
86
This obstructive disorder is caused by chronic inflammation, narrowing of the airways, and alveolar destruction, which includes emphysema and chronic obstructive bronchiolitis.
COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder)
87
Inflammation from COPD involves which cells
Neutrophils and cytotoxic T cells
88
What may develop from COPD that could eventually lead to failure of the right ventricle
Cor pulmonale - pulmonary hypertension with hypertrophy
89
Which restrictive disorder accumulates fibrous tissue in the lungs when alveoli are damaged, may be due to inhalation of small particles, and is also known as black lung
Pulmonary fibrosis
90
Total atmospheric pressure is the sum of the contributions of the individual gases
Dalton's law
91
The separate contribution of each gas in a mixture
Partial pressure
92
What percentage of nitrogen constitutes the atmosphere
78.6%
93
The swapping of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the respiratory membrane
Alveolar gas exchange
94
At the air-water interface, for a given temperature, the amount of gas that dissolves in the water is determined by its solubility in water and its partial pressure in air
Henry's law
95
What does unloading carbon dioxide and loading oxygen involve?
Erythrocytes
96
At rest, how long does a RBC spend in alveolar capillaries
0.75 seconds
97
In strenuous exercise, how long does a RBC spend in alveolar capillaries
0.3 seconds
98
What is the normal pressure gradient of oxygen
PO2 = 104 mm Hg in alveolar air vs. 40 mm Hg in blood
99
What is the normal pressure gradient of carbon dioxide
PCO2 = 46 mm Hg in blood vs. 40 mm Hg in alveolar air
100
Treatment with oxygen at greater than 1 atm of pressure
Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
101
At high altitudes, the partial pressure of all gases are ____
lower
102
What happens to RBC production when there is less oxygen in the blood
Increase of RBC production
103
How much more soluble is carbon dioxide to oxygen
CO2 is 20 times as soluble as O2 - equal amounts of O2 and CO2 are exchanged across the respiratory membrane because CO2 is much more soluble and diffuses more rapidly
104
100 mL blood in alveolar capillaries, spread thinly over 70m2
Membrane surface area
105
The process of carrying gases from the alveoli to the systemic tissues and vice versa
Gas transport
106
What is the amount of hemoglobin bound and amount of plasma dissolved in oxygen transport
98.5% bound to hemoglobin and 1.5% dissolved in plasma
107
What are the percentages of carbon dioxide in transport
90% is hydrated to form carbonic acid, 5% is bound to proteins, and 5% is dissolved as a gas in plasma
108
What are the percentages of carbon dioxide in exchange
70% of CO2 comes from carbonic acid, 20% comes from proteins, and 10% comes straight from plasma
109
How much oxygen is carried in the arterial blood
Arterial blood carries about 20 mL of O2 per deciliter
110
Molecules specialized for oxygen transport
Hemoglobin
111
How many protein (globin) portions are there
Four
112
___ hemoglobin molecule can carry up to 4 O2
One
113
O2 bound to hemoglobin
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
114
Hemoglobin with no O2
Deoxyhemoglobin (HHb)
115
What are the three forms that carbon dioxide can be transported in
- Carbonic acid: 70%
- Carbamino compounds: 20%
- Dissolved in plasma: 10%
116
What percentage of CO2 is hydrated to form carbonic acid
90%
117
What can transport O2 and CO2 simultaneously
Hemoglobin
118
Which gas competes for the O2 binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule
Carbon monoxide (CO)
119
Colorless, odorless gas in cigarette smoke, engine exhaust, fumes from furnaces and space heaters
Carbon monoxide
120
When carbon monoxide binds to iron of hemoglobin (Hb)
Carboxyhemoglobin
121
The unloading of O2 and loading of CO2 at the systemic capillaries
Systemic gas exchange
122
When 22% of its oxygen load has been given up
Utilization coefficient
123
The oxygen remaining in the blood after it passes through the capillary beds
Venous reserve
124
Why would hemoglobin unload O2
To match metabolic needs of different states of activity of the tissues
125
What are the four factors that adjust the rate of oxygen unloading to match need
- Ambient PO2
- Temperature
- Bohr effect
- Concentration of biphosphoglycerate
126
Active (meaning metabolism has been increased) tissues have decreased PO2; O2 is released from Hb
Ambient PO2
127
During this factor that adjust oxygen unloading, active tissues have increased ____ which promotes O2 unloading
Temperature
128
Active tissues have increased CO2, which lowers pH of blood, promoting O2 unloading
Bohr effect
129
Low level of oxyhemoglobin enables the blood to transport more CO2
Haldane effect
130
Contraction and relaxation of breathing muscles is controlled by motor neurons from which two areas of the brain
- Cerebral cortex: voluntary breathing
- Respiratory control centers of the medulla oblongata and pons: involuntary breathing
131
Motor neurons that innervate the diaphragm form the phrenic nerve and arise from where
From the cervical region of the spinal cord
132
Motor neurons that innervate the other breathing muscles arise from where
The thoracolumbar region of the spinal cord
133
Where is the rhythmicity center/ventrolateral region
Medulla oblongata
134
Generates inspiratory rhythm; has intrinsic rhythmicity but can also have automatic bursts of activity
Pre-Botzinger complex
135
Influenced by both excitatory and inhibitory synapses, so it can be modified for speech and other motor activities
Pre-Botzinger complex
136
Which area of the brain may influence medulla activity
The pons
137
Area within the pons that promotes inspiration by stimulating medulla inspiratory centers
Apneustic center
138
Area within the pons that inhibits inspiration
Pneumotaxic center
139
Which respiratory center controls breathing largely via the phrenic motor nuclei from C3-C6 cervical spinal nuclei
Brainstem respiratory centers
140
Automatic control of breathing is influenced by feedback from these receptors, which monitor pH of fluids in the brain and pH PCO2 and PO2 of the blood
Chemoreceptors
141
Chemoreceptors located in the retrotrapezoid nucleus of the medulla
Central chemoreceptors
142
Chemoreceptors located in the carotid and aorta arteries
Peripheral chemoreceptors
143
Which body sends feedback to medulla along vagus nerve
Aortic body
144
Which body sends feedback to medulla along glossopharyngeal nerve
Carotid body
145
What is it called when ventilation is inadequate
Hypoventilation
146
What is it called when CO2 levels rise and pH falls
Hypercapnia
147
What is it called when CO2 levels fall and pH rises
Hyperventilation
148
Why do oxygen levels not change as rapidly
Because of oxygen reserves in hemoglobin
149
This is controlled to maintain constant levels of CO2 in the blood
Ventilation
150
What can cross the blood-brain barrier and react with water in the CSF to produce H+ in the brain interstitial fluid that stimulates the central chemoreceptors
Arterial CO2
151
Which process takes longer but is responsible for 70 to 80% of increased ventilation
Arterial CO2 crossing the blood-brain barrier to react with water in the CSF
152
These chemoreceptors respond much quicker and occur when aortic and carotid bodies respond to the rise in H+ in the blood due to increased CO2 levels due to hypoventilation
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
153
Which pulmonary receptors stimulate coughing
- Irritant receptors: in wall of larynx; respond to smoke, particulates, etc.
- Rapidly adapting receptors: in lungs; respond to excess fluid
154
Which reflex is stimulated by pulmonary stretch receptors, inhibits respiratory centers as inhalation proceeds, and makes sure that you do not inhale too deeply
Hering-Breuer reflex
155
This is due to low plasma PCO2 due to hyperventilation which causes cerebral vasoconstriction, which also results in inadequate brain perfusion and hypoxia that can produce dizziness
Hypocapnia
156
What are the kidney's function?
The regulation of the extracellular fluid environment in the body
157
Which extracellular fluid is regulated by the kidneys?
- Volume of blood plasma (affects blood pressure)
- Wastes
- Electrolytes
- pH
- Secrete erythropoietin
158
Where is urine made?
In the kidney nephrons
159
What is the path of urine after it is made?
- Drains into the renal pelvis
- Down the ureter to the urinary bladder
- Passes from the bladder through the urethra to exit the body
160
How is urine transported
By a wave like motion through the tubes called peristalsis
161
What are the distinct regions of the kidney
The renal cortex and the renal medulla
162
What is the renal medulla made up of
Renal pyramids and columns
163
Where does each renal pyramid in the renal medulla drain into
The minor calyx to the major calyx to the renal pelvis
164
The functional unit of the kidney
The nephron
165
How many nephrons does each kidney have
More than a million
166
What does each nephron consist of
Small tubules and associated blood vessels
167
____ is filtered, fluid enters the tubules, is modified, then leaves the tubules as urine
Blood
168
What surrounds the glomerulus
The glomerular (Bowman's) capsule
169
Together, the glomerular (Bowman's) capsule and glomerulus make up
The renal corpuscle
170
What is produced in the renal corpuscle
Filtrate
171
What is the path of the fluid filtrate
- After being produced in the renal corpuscle, it passes into the proximal convoluted tubule
- Fluid passes into the descending and ascending limbs of the loop of Henle
- Fluid then passes into the distal convoluted tubule
- Finally, fluid passes into the collecting duct
- The fluid is now urine and will drain into a minor calyx
172
What are the two types of nephrons
- Juxtamedullary: next to the medulla
- Cortical: in the cortex region of the kidney
173
Which muscles line the wall of the urinary bladder
Detrusor muscles
174
Which junctions connect the smooth muscle cells of the detrusor muscles
Gap junctions
175
Detrusor muscles are innervated by which neurons
Parasympathetic neurons - which release acetylcholine into muscarinic ACh receptors
176
What are the two sphincters that surround the urethra
- Internal urethral sphincter: smooth muscle
- External urethral sphincter: skeletal muscle
177
Which receptors in the bladder send information to S2-S4 regions of the spinal cord
Stretch receptors
178
What is it called when neurons normally inhibit parasympathetic nerves to the detrusor muscles, while somatic motor neurons to the external urethral sphincter are stimulated
The guarding reflex - prevents involuntary emptying of bladder
179
What initiates the voiding reflex
Stretch of the bladder
180
Hard objects formed in the kidneys containing crystalized minerals or waste products
Nephrolithiasis or kidney stones
181
What are kidney stones made up of
80% are calcium stones, but other can be of magnesium, ammonium, phosphate, or uric acid
182
Uncontrolled urination due to loss of bladder control
Urinary incontinence
183
This type of incontinence is present when urine leakage occurs due to increased abdominal pressure, as during sneezing, coughing, and laughing
Stress urinary incontinence
184
Where does filtration being within the kidneys
Begins at the glomerulus
185
Why are capillaries of the glomerulus fenestrated
Large pores allow water and solutes to leave but not blood cells and plasma proteins
186
What is the fluid entering the glomerular capsule called
Filtrate
187
What are the major barriers for the filtration of plasma proteins
Slits in the pedicles called slit diaphragm pores
188
____ is the fluid in the capsular space - similar to blood plasma except almost no protein
Glomerular filtrate
189
Volume of filtrate produced by both kidneys each minute
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
190
How often is the total blood volume filtered
Every 40 minutes
191
What changes the filtration rate of afferent arterioles
Vasoconstriction or dilation
192
Which regulation is via sympathetic nervous system
Extrinsic regulation
193
Which regulation is via signals from the kidneys, called renal autoregulation
Intrinsic regulation
194
What is maintained at a constant level even when blood pressure fluctuates greatly
GFR
195
When smooth muscles in arterioles sense an increase in blood pressure
Myogenic constriction
196
When cells in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle called macula densa sense a rise in water and sodium as occurs with increased blood pressure (and filtration rate)
Tubuloglomerular feedback
197
What is it called when a minimum of 400 ml (14oz) must be excreted to rid the body of wastes
The obligatory water loss
198
Where does 85% of reabsorption occur
In the proximal tubules and descending loop of Henle
199
The osmolality of filtrate in the glomerular capsule is equal to that of ____
Blood plasma (isosmotic)
200
What is actively transported out of the filtrate into the peritubular blood to set up a concentration gradient to drive osmosis
Sodium
201
In active transport, cells of the proximal tubules are joined by tight junctions on which side of the tubule
The apical side (facing inside the tubule)
202
In active transport, what do the cells have a lower concentration of
Lower sodium concentration than the filtrate inside the tubule due to sodium potassium pumps on the basal side of the cells and low permeability to sodium
203
In passive transport, the pumping of sodium into the interstitial space attracts what
Negative chloride out of the filtrate
204
In passive transport, what follows sodium and chloride into the tubular cells and the interstitial space
Water
205
In passive transport, where do the ions and water diffuse
Into the peritubular capillaries
206
What cannot be actively pumped out of the tubules and will not cross if isotonic to extracellular fluid
Water
207
Which structure allows for a concentration gradient to be set up for the osmosis of water
The loop of Henle - the ascending portion
208
Salt is actively pumped into the interstitial fluid where in the loop of Henle
The thick segment of the ascending limb
209
Which part of the loop of Henle can osmosis not occur
The ascending part of the loop - the walls are not permeable to water
210
Which part of the loop of Henle is not permeable to salt but is permeable to water
The descending limb
211
What is the positive feedback mechanism that is created between the two portions of the loop of Henle
Countercurrent Multiplication
212
Specialized blood vessels around loop of Henle, which also have a descending and ascending portion
Vasa Recta
213
What helps to create the countercurrent system by taking in salts in the descending regions but losing them again in the ascending region
Vasa Recta
214
What is the last stop in urine formation
The collecting duct and ADH secretion
215
What stimulates the release of ADH
An increase in blood osmolality
216
What is called when kidneys must remove excess ions and wastes from the blood
Renal clearance
217
Where does renal clearance begin
Filtration in the glomerular capsule
218
Reabsorption returns some substances to the blood ______ renal clearance
Decreasing
219
Excretion rate =
(filtration rate + secretion rate) - reabsorption rate
220
What is used to measure glomerular filtrate rate (GFR) - which is also an indicator of renal health
Excretion rate
221
Compound found in garlic, onion, dahlias, and artichokes - great marker of glomerular filtration rate because it is not filtered but not reabsorbed or secreted
Inulin
222
Produced in muscles from creatine and released into the blood plasma - its concentration is used to help assess kidney function
Creatinine
223
- A substance enters the glomerular ultrafiltrate
- Some or all of a filtered substance may enter the urine and be "cleared" from the blood
Filtration
224
- A substance is transported from the filtrate, through tubular cells, and into the blood
- This decreases the rate at which a substance is cleared, clearance rate is LESS THAN the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
Reabsorption
225
- A substance is transported from peritubular blood, through tubular cells, and into the filtrate
- When done so by nephrons, its renal plasma clearance is GREATER THAN the GFR
Secretion
226
An exogenous molecule injected for measurement of total renal blood flow
PAH (para-aminohippuric acid)
227
____ is easily filtered out into the glomerular capsule
Glucose
228
Control of sodium levels is important for
Blood pressure and blood volume
229
Control of potassium levels is important for
Healthy skeletal and cardiac muscle activity
230
What plays a big role in sodium and potassium balance
Aldosterone
231
About how much of filtered sodium and potassium is reabsorbed in the nephron - not regulated
About 90%
232
An assessment of what the body needs is made, and ______ controls additional reabsorption of sodium and secretion of potassium in the distal tubule and collecting duct
Aldosterone
233
Increase in blood potassium triggers an increase in the number of potassium channels in the cortical collecting duct (when blood potassium levels drop, these channels are removed)
Aldosterone independent response
234
Increase in blood potassium triggers adrenal cortex to release aldosterone (this increases potassium secretion in the distal tubule and collecting duct)
Aldosterone-dependent response
235
This is located where the afferent arteriole comes into contact with the distal tubule and acts as a baroreceptor and detects a decrease in blood pressure and blood volume
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
236
When the juxtaglomerular apparatus detects a decrease in blood pressure and volume, granular cells secrete ____ into the afferent arteriole
Renin
237
After granular cells secrete renin into the afferent arteriole, this converts angiotensinogen into _____
angiotensin I
238
When angiotensinogen converts angiotensin I, angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACE) converts it then into ___
angiotensin II
239
Once angiotensin II is present, this stimulates the adrenal cortex to make ____
Aldosterone - which increases blood volume and raises blood pressure
240
Renin is released by the granular cells in response to decreased blood volume and pressure, but what other system can also stimulate renin
The sympathetic nervous system
241
Which receptors in the carotid and aorta stimulate the sympathetic nervous system
Baroreceptors
242
A system of hormones that helps control blood pressure and GFR
The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism
243
Which organ releases angiotensinogen
The liver
244
In which organs does angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) convert angiotensin I to angiotensin II
In the lungs and kidneys
245
What is the active hormone that increases blood pressure
Angiotensin II
246
This hormone lowers blood pressure in the peritubular capillaries enhancing reabsorption of NaCl and water, stimulates the posterior pituitary to secrete ADH and stimulates thirst
Angiotensin II
247
Increases in blood volume will increase the release of ______ from the atria of the heart when atrial walls are stretched
Atrial natriuretic peptide hormone
248
Which hormone decreases blood volume and blood pressure
Atrial natriuretic peptide
249
Which natriuretic hormone released by the heart's ventricle can be used clinically to help diagnose CHF
B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)
