Picture Generated Flashcards
(380 cards)
1
Q
What are strepsirrhines?
A
Members of the primate suborder Strepsirrhini, which includes lemurs and lorises.
2
Q
What are haplorhines?
A
Members of the primate suborder Haplorhini, which includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.
3
Q
What does ‘derived’ mean in evolutionary terms?
A
Being or having a feature that is not present in the ancestral form.
4
Q
What does ‘orthograde’ refer to?
A
Referring to an upright body position, relating to the position of the head and torso.
5
Q
What is a superorder?
A
A taxonomic group ranking above an order and below a class or subclass.
6
Q
What are sister groups?
A
The relationship of new clades that result from the splitting of a single common lineage.
7
Q
What are some primitive features retained by primates?
A
- Pentadactyly (five fingers and toes)
- Unfused lower arm bones
8
Q
What are some derived primate traits?
A
- More orthograde (upright) body position
- More forward-facing eyes
9
Q
What era do we trace the development of mammals that resemble humans?
A
The Cenozoic era.
10
Q
When did the first hominoids (apes) emerge?
A
23 to 5 million years ago (mya) during the Miocene.
11
Q
What is the significance of recognizing primate families in the fossil record?
A
It helps us discover our later human origins and organize these creatures into meaningful groups.
12
Q
What marked the beginning of the Age of Mammals?
A
The extinction of the dinosaurs at the end of the Mesozoic.
13
Q
During which period did primates begin to diverge from closely related mammalian lineages?
A
During the Cretaceous.
14
Q
What closely related lineages are included in the superorder with primates?
A
- Tree shrews
- Flying lemurs (colugos)
15
Q
What are the closest relatives of the superorder that includes primates?
A
- Rabbits
- Rodents
- Their relatives
16
Q
What type of climate accompanied the diversification of early mammals?
A
A global tropical climate.
17
Q
True or False: The exact origins of the earliest primates are well understood.
A
False.
18
Q
Fill in the blank: The diversification of early mammals took place after the extinction of the _______.
A
dinosaurs.
19
Q
What era is primarily associated with most of primate evolution?
A
Cenozoic era
The Cenozoic era is divided into seven epochs important for understanding primate evolution.
20
Q
What is the oldest epoch in the Cenozoic era?
A
Paleocene (beginning 65 mya)
The Paleocene epoch marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era and the emergence of the first archaic primates.
21
Q
List the epochs of the Cenozoic era in order.
A
- Paleocene (65 to 55.8 mya)
- Eocene (55.8 to 33 mya)
- Oligocene (33 to 23 mya)
- Miocene (23 to 5.3 mya)
- Pliocene (5.3 to 2.6 mya)
- Pleistocene (2.6 to 0.105 mya)
- Holocene (0.105 mya to present)
Each epoch corresponds to significant phases in primate evolution.
22
Q
What significant primate groups emerged during the Eocene epoch?
A
First euprimates, early strepsirrhines and haplorhines
The Eocene is marked by the emergence of more advanced primates compared to those in the Paleocene.
23
Q
What are the early catarrhines and when did they emerge?
A
Precursors to monkeys and apes during the Oligocene (33 to 23 mya)
Catarrhines are a significant group in primate evolution, leading to the development of modern monkeys and apes.
24
Q
During which epoch did the first humanlike creatures appear?
A
Miocene (23 to 5.3 mya)
The Miocene epoch saw significant developments in the evolution of primates, including the emergence of humanlike characteristics.
25
What major diversification occurred in the Pliocene epoch?
Early hominin diversification
## Footnote
The Pliocene is critical for understanding the evolution of early humans.
26
What does the term 'last common ancestor' (LCA) refer to?
The final evolutionary link between two related groups
## Footnote
The LCA is significant in tracing the evolutionary history of primates.
27
What is a crown group in evolutionary biology?
All of the taxa that come after a major speciation event
## Footnote
Crown groups are easier to identify due to shared derived traits.
28
Define a stem group.
All of the taxa in a clade before a major speciation event
## Footnote
Stem groups often lack the shared derived traits found in crown groups, making them harder to identify in fossils.
29
What is a significant challenge in identifying the last common ancestor of primates?
Difficulty in pinpointing morphological traits
## Footnote
The LCA may not exhibit the derived traits of its descendant groups, complicating its identification.
30
True or False: Molecular data often provide overestimates of divergence dates.
True
## Footnote
While fossil records provide an underestimate of divergence dates, molecular data tend to suggest earlier divergence.
31
Fill in the blank: The first indisputable primates emerged just before the _______ epoch.
Eocene
## Footnote
This emergence is crucial for understanding the timeline of primate evolution.
32
What does molecular anthropology investigate?
The biology and evolution of humans and our closest relatives, the nonhuman primates.
33
What do molecular anthropologists use to test hypotheses about relationships within the primate order?
Proteins, genes, and genomes.
34
What has revolutionized our knowledge of primate systematics?
The use of molecular methods.
35
What can DNA sequences help infer regarding primate species?
How long ago primate species last shared a common ancestor.
36
What is the 'molecular clock'?
A concept where differences in DNA sequences are proportional to the time since two species last shared a common ancestor.
37
What factors cause variation in the speed of molecular clocks among primate species?
* Brain size
* Body size
* Generation time
38
How do large-bodied apes affect their molecular clock?
They take longer to mature and produce offspring, which slows down the clock for these species.
39
How can the fossil record help calibrate molecular clocks?
By providing information about when species diverged and size estimates for fossil species.
40
Why are molecular divergence dates best inferred from multiple parts of the genome?
To ensure that divergences calculated from different regions are generally consistent.
41
How did the size of early primates affect their molecular clocks?
Early primates were much smaller, resulting in faster molecular clocks.
42
What effect does uncorrected molecular data often have on inferred divergence times?
They tend to be much older than expected.
43
What advances have allowed for unprecedented amounts of molecular data collection?
Advances in genome sequencing technology.
44
What are molecular anthropologists currently using genome-scale data for?
* Examining evolutionary relationships of extant primate species
* Identifying genotypes underlying distinctly modern human characteristics.
45
46
What is the time frame for the origins of indisputable primates according to morphological and molecular approaches?
About 66 mya
## Footnote
This is during the Paleocene-Cretaceous transition.
47
What major radiation of archaic primates occurred between 65 and 52 mya?
Plesiadapiforms
## Footnote
Plesiadapiforms are members of an extinct group with a controversial position in primate phylogeny.
48
What was the initial classification of plesiadapiforms when first discovered?
Early members of the primate order
## Footnote
This classification was later reversed in the 1960s.
49
What classification was given to plesiadapiforms in the 1960s?
Their own order, Plesiadapiformes
## Footnote
This was a reversal from their initial classification as early primates.
50
What has recent analysis of newly discovered fossils indicated about plesiadapiforms?
They are placed back within Primates
## Footnote
This conclusion is supported by various research studies.
51
List the two approaches used to determine the origins of primates.
* Morphological
* Molecular
## Footnote
These approaches are linked by determining the appropriate rate of mutation.
52
True or False: Plesiadapiforms are currently classified as a separate order from Primates.
False
## Footnote
Recent findings have placed them back within the Primates classification.
53
What is the significance of the gold-colored nodes in the molecular primate family tree?
They indicate dates of divergence
## Footnote
This is based on the works of three research teams.
54
Fill in the blank: Plesiadapiforms are considered members of an _______ group.
Extinct
## Footnote
Their exact classification within primate phylogeny is debated.
55
What era does the major radiation of archaic primates fall into?
Early Paleocene to early Eocene
## Footnote
This corresponds to a time frame of 65 to 52 mya.
56
Which primate suborder includes orangutans, gorillas, humans, and chimpanzees?
Haplorrhini
## Footnote
This suborder is part of the primate family tree.
57
Which primate suborder includes lorises and lemurs?
Strepsirrhini
## Footnote
This is another classification within the primate family.
58
What are dermopterans commonly known as?
Flying lemurs
## Footnote
They represent a distinct group within the primate classification.
59
What is a semiorder in taxonomic classification?
A taxonomic category above suborder and below order.
60
What does the term 'euprimates' refer to?
'True primates.' Coined by Elwyn Simons in 1972.
61
What does 'postcranial' refer to?
All or part of the skeleton not including the skull.
62
Where are Plesiadapiforms primarily found?
From a large number of fossil finds in the American West, especially Montana and Wyoming.
63
What is the significance of the Clarks Fork Basin in Wyoming for Plesiadapiforms?
It has yielded a variety of nearly complete skeletons of these Paleocene mammals.
64
How many families are commonly recognized within the Plesiadapiforms?
As many as six families.
65
Which family includes the oldest recognized archaic primate?
Purgatoriidae.
66
What is the size of the extinct genus Purgatorius compared to modern animals?
About the size of modern rats.
67
When did Purgatorius likely live?
During the earliest Paleocene about 65 million years ago.
68
What adaptation is suggested to have been a prime mover in primate evolution?
Arboreal adaptation.
69
What is the size range of the mammals in the family Plesiadapidae?
Chipmunk- to groundhog-sized.
70
What type of diet did Plesiadapidae likely have?
A vegetative diet of leaves supplemented with fruits.
71
Which genus is best known within the Plesiadapidae family?
Plesiadapis.
72
What does the name 'Carpolestidae' mean?
'Fruit stealer.'
73
What was the size of Carpolestes compared to modern animals?
About the size of the average hamster.
74
What specialized dental traits did Carpolestidae have?
Enlarged incisors for processing fibrous vegetation, nuts, and insects.
75
Did Carpolestes display adaptations for leaping?
No, it did not display adaptations for leaping.
76
Fill in the blank: The term 'Plesiadapiforms' refers to a group of mammals that exhibit continuity of traits with early _______.
strepsirrhines.
77
True or False: Plesiadapiforms were fully adapted to living in trees.
False.
78
What epoch is characterized by the extinction of plesiadapiforms and the emergence of euprimates?
Eocene epoch (55.8 to 33 mya)
## Footnote
The Eocene epoch marked significant evolutionary changes among mammals.
79
What are some key derived traits of euprimates?
* Forward-facing eyes
* Greater encephalization
* Postorbital bar
* Nails instead of claws
* Opposable big toe
## Footnote
These traits signify adaptations to different environmental conditions compared to plesiadapiforms.
80
What environmental conditions characterized the Eocene epoch?
Warmer climate with year-round rainfall and lush, broad-leaved evergreen forests
## Footnote
These conditions were significantly different from those experienced by earlier primates.
81
During which time period did North America and Europe remain connected?
Beginning of the Eocene epoch
## Footnote
The continents split apart in the middle Eocene.
82
What facilitated the exchange of species between North America and Asia during the Eocene?
Bering land bridge
## Footnote
This connection allowed for sporadic interactions between the continents.
83
What was the general trend for mammal diversification during the Eocene?
Rapid diversification and adaptive radiation
## Footnote
This period saw a greater variety of animals compared to the earlier Paleocene Epoch.
84
What are the two main branches of euprimates classified into?
* Adapoidea
* Omomyoidea
## Footnote
These branches include primitive primates that exhibit different physical traits.
85
Which group of euprimates is described as more lemurlike?
Adapoid
## Footnote
Adapoidea is characterized by traits similar to lemurs.
86
Which group of euprimates is described as more tarsier- or galagolike?
Omomyoid
## Footnote
This group includes primates with characteristics akin to tarsiers and galagos.
87
What is the estimated time frame for the appearance of euprimates?
Around 56 mya
## Footnote
Euprimates appeared nearly simultaneously across North America, Europe, and Asia.
88
What type of remains have been found for both adapoids and omomyoids?
Cranial, dental, and postcranial remains
## Footnote
These fossils have been recovered from North America, Europe, and more recently, Asia and Africa.
89
Fill in the blank: The Eocene epoch saw the replacement of _______ by euprimates.
plesiadapiforms
## Footnote
This transition marked a significant evolutionary shift in mammalian history.
90
What are adapoids?
Adapoids are the best known of the Eocene stem strepsirrhines, including more than 35 genera.
91
What is the primitive dental formula of adapoids?
2.1.4.3
92
How many families are adapoids divided into?
Five families, based mostly on biogeographical distinctions.
93
Which family of adapoids is primarily found in North America?
Notharctids
94
What is the genus of the earliest notharctid?
Cantius
95
What type of creature was Cantius likely to be?
A diurnal creature that foraged during the day.
96
What indicates that Cantius was probably a fruit eater?
Traits of its mandible and its primitive dental formula.
97
What significant fossil was unveiled in 2009?
Darwinius, nicknamed 'Ida'.
98
What dental features did Darwinius lack?
A dental comb and a grooming claw.
99
What was the claim made by some researchers about Ida?
That Ida and other adapoids were basal haplorhines.
100
What fossil solidified the adapoid position as a stem strepsirrhine group?
Afradapis
101
From which continent did the adapids likely emigrate?
Asia
102
What dietary niche did Afradapis indicate it may have exploited?
Anthropoid-like feeding niches, eating leaves like a monkey.
103
What does the term homology refer to?
Similar traits based on descent.
104
What does the term homoplasy refer to?
Similar traits that evolve independently in different groups.
105
Who first described the fossil Adapis?
Georges Cuvier
106
What did Georges Cuvier famously state about fossil man?
'l'homme fossile n'existe pas' ('fossil man does not exist').
107
Fill in the blank: The adapoids might have been the first primates to exploit _______ feeding niches in Africa.
anthropoid-like
108
True or False: The adapids abruptly appeared in Europe near the end of the Eocene.
True
109
Who described and named the first fossil primate?
Cuvier
## Footnote
Cuvier made an error by confusing the fossil remains with those of an ungulate.
110
What is the dental formula of Adapis?
2.1.4.3
## Footnote
This formula is considered primitive and suggests an incipient dental comb.
111
What feature is recognized in the Adapis genus?
incipient dental comb
## Footnote
A dental comb is a specialization of the front teeth in the lower jaw.
112
What type of locomotion did Adapis exhibit?
slow arboreal quadruped
## Footnote
Adapis likely foraged for leaves during the daytime.
113
What are the key early primate names listed in the text?
* Purgatorius
* Carpolestes
* Darwinius
* Teilhardina
* Archaeolemur
* Adapis
## Footnote
These names are associated with various epochs and regions.
114
What is the significance of the adapoids in relation to modern lemurs?
They show distinctive primate tendencies and resemble lemurs in anatomical body plan
## Footnote
Modern lemurs retain some ancestral traits, but adapoids lack many specializations.
115
What evolutionary significance do lemurs and other strepsirrhines hold?
They are the sister group to all other primate lineages
## Footnote
Their evolutionary position is crucial for understanding primate divergence.
116
What are lorisoids?
The earliest examples of strepsirrhine primates in the fossil record
## Footnote
Lorisoids include lorises and galagos.
117
Where have lorisoids been found in the fossil record?
Late Eocene
## Footnote
This indicates their presence in the fossil record during this period.
118
What does the genus name 'Purgatorius' represent?
The first known archaic primate
## Footnote
It is from the Paleocene epoch and found in the American Southwest and Montana.
119
What is unique about the Archaeolemur?
It converged upon monkey anatomy in a monkey-less environment
## Footnote
This subfossil lemur had a fused mandible and bilophodont molars.
120
Fill in the blank: The adapoid genus named to commemorate Charles Darwin's bicentenary is _______.
Darwinius
## Footnote
This genus is known from a well-preserved fossil.
121
What does the Omomyoid genus demonstrate?
All euprimates likely engaged in a rapid westward dispersal from Asia to Europe and North America
## Footnote
This highlights the migration patterns of early primates.
122
What is a dental comb?
A specialized structure found in some primates, including lemurs, used for grooming and feeding
## Footnote
The dental comb is formed by the forward-facing lower incisors and canines.
123
What significant fossil find was discovered in the Fayum Depression in Egypt?
A late Eocene fossil with a dental comb, indicating it was a stem galagid
## Footnote
This find provides insight into the early evolution of strepsirrhine primates.
124
When did lorises and galagos likely diverge?
By the close of the middle Eocene
## Footnote
This conclusion is supported by molecular evidence.
125
Where did stem strepsirrhines initially evolve?
On the African mainland
## Footnote
This suggests that they later colonized Madagascar.
126
How did lemurs likely colonize Madagascar?
By crossing the Mozambique Channel, possibly on drifting debris
## Footnote
This event likely occurred during the early Cenozoic.
127
What are subfossil lemurs?
Skeletal remains that are too recent to have become completely mineralized into fossils
## Footnote
They provide important information about extinct lemur species.
128
How did the size of extinct subfossil lemurs compare to modern lemurs?
Some were up to five times as big as modern lemurs
## Footnote
They filled unusual ecological niches not shared by any living lemurs.
129
What is an example of a subfossil lemur that resembled a monkey?
Archaeolemur
## Footnote
It had a fused mandible and bilophodont molars, indicating convergent evolution.
130
What is the significance of the brain sulcal pattern in Archaeolemur?
It was similar to that seen in higher primates
## Footnote
This suggests a convergence on a monkey-like role despite living on a monkeyless island.
131
What is the best-known giant lemur?
Megaladapis
## Footnote
It was notably large, weighing 170 pounds and had similarities to koalas.
132
What does bilophodont refer to?
Molars that have four cusps oriented in two parallel rows
## Footnote
This trait is characteristic of Old World monkeys.
133
What is the ecological role of extinct lemurs like Archaeolemur?
They filled monkey-like roles on a monkeyless island
## Footnote
This is an example of convergent evolution in isolated ecosystems.
134
What is island hopping in the context of primate evolution?
Traveling from one island to another, potentially aiding in colonization
## Footnote
This mechanism has been suggested for the original monkey colonization of South America.
135
What happened to the specialized forest dweller Megaladapis?
It became extinct with the appearance of humans on the island due to deforestation for farmland.
## Footnote
Megaladapis was a large-bodied lemur that weighed over 22 pounds.
136
What is the fate of the remaining lemurs of Madagascar?
They will meet the same fate as Megaladapis unless habitat destruction by humans ceases.
## Footnote
Most of the 16 subfossil species discovered went extinct within the last 2,000 years.
137
Who are paleoprimatologists?
Anthropologists specializing in the study of the nonhuman primate fossil record.
138
What are omomyoids often referred to as?
Tarsier-like omomyoids due to their resemblance to the tarsier.
## Footnote
They are the earliest haplorhine group and are more taxonomically diverse than adapoids.
139
What is the dental formula of the tarsier-like omomyoids?
1.1.3.3.
140
What hypothesis do some researchers have regarding omomyoids?
They may represent the stock for all later haplorhines, including tarsiers, New World monkeys, Old World monkeys, apes, and humans.
141
From which continents are members of the genus Teilhardina found?
Three continents: Asia, Europe, and North America.
142
What does the fossil record suggest about the dispersal of the earliest euprimates?
They engaged in a rapid westward dispersal, with evidence pointing to Asia as the starting point.
143
What did analysis of related species of Teilhardina reveal about their origins?
The oldest and most primitive members were from Asia, while the youngest were from North America.
144
What significant environmental change occurred at the beginning of the Eocene?
Significant global warming opened high-latitude land bridges between continents.
145
Which North American and European fossils are thought to be closely related to the tarsier?
Omomyidae fossils, specifically Shoshonius from North America and Necrolemur from Europe.
146
Fill in the blank: The tarsier-like omomyoids are more taxonomically ______ than the adapoids.
diverse
147
True or False: The genus Teilhardina shows a pattern of eastward migration.
False
148
What is the significance of the fossil record for the tarsier family tree?
It was missing most of its branches until recently, with new finds adding valuable information
149
What was the name of the nearly complete skeleton discovered in 2013?
Archicebus
150
How old is the fossil of Archicebus?
Approximately 55 million years old
151
What does the skeleton of Archicebus suggest about its habitat?
It suggests that Archicebus was arboreal
152
What aspect of Archicebus's anatomy indicates its reliance on vision?
The relatively large orbits
153
What does the size of Archicebus's orbits suggest about its activity pattern?
It was likely diurnal
154
What evidence indicates that tarsiiform orbital anatomy was similar to living tarsiers by 45 million years ago?
Cranial remains from the Middle Eocene of China
155
What notable feature does a tarsiiform from the middle Miocene of Thailand possess?
Extremely large orbits
156
What conclusion has been drawn about the body plan of modern tarsiers compared to their Eocene ancestors?
They have retained essentially the same body plan
157
When did the five extant species of tarsiers diverge according to molecular evidence?
In the Miocene
158
What environmental change occurred toward the end of the Eocene?
A shift from tropical to drier and more seasonal climates
159
What did the change in climate at the end of the Eocene lead to?
More diverse landscapes and new niches for primates
160
What is the focus of the next saga in primate origins after discussing tarsiers?
The infraorder Anthropoidea
161
What are the two debated origins of anthropoid primates?
Adapoid and omomyoid origins
162
What recent discoveries have influenced the understanding of anthropoid origins?
Some advocate that crown haplorhines are a sister group to omomyoids
163
Fill in the blank: The fossil record for tarsiers indicates they are closely related to _______.
modern tarsiers
164
True or False: Archicebus had specialized feet for vertical clinging and leaping.
False
165
What feature links Eocene forms of tarsiers with later tarsiers but not with anthropoids?
The position of the olfactory portion of the brain
166
What type of primates were tarsiers and strepsirrhines before the emergence of anthropoids?
Primitive members of Primates
167
What is the Fayum Depression known for?
It provides most of our early anthropoid record for the Eocene and Oligocene periods.
## Footnote
The Fayum is an arid region in Egypt that was once a swampy forest playground for primates.
168
Who is Elwyn Simons?
A paleoprimatologist who excavated the Fayum and contributed significantly to the understanding of early primates.
## Footnote
Simons conducted fieldwork in the Fayum from 1961 to 2012.
169
What does the fossil discovery of Biretia represent?
The most complete remains of an early African anthropoid, dated to 37 mya.
## Footnote
Biretia weighs just under a pound and exhibits primitive dental morphology.
170
What is significant about the molar tooth roots of Biretia?
They indicate large orbits, suggesting that Biretia was nocturnal.
## Footnote
This finding challenges previous assumptions about early anthropoid lifestyles.
171
What does the name 'Fayum' likely derive from?
The ancient Egyptian word 'Baym', meaning 'lake or sea'.
## Footnote
This refers to the area's proximity to a large lake near the Nile.
172
What was the first primate discovered in Egypt?
Apidium.
## Footnote
It was considered a 'dawn ape' and thought to be an early relative of apes and monkeys.
173
What are the two categories of fossils found in the Fayum?
Lower-sequence primates and upper-sequence primates.
## Footnote
These are categorized based on their placement in the stratigraphic section.
174
How many genera of primates are known from the Eocene and Oligocene sediments in the Fayum?
Over 20 genera.
## Footnote
These fossils present a wide variety of dietary niches.
175
What type of lifestyle did both strepsirrhines and some anthropoids exploit according to Fayum fossils?
A frugivorous (fruit-eating) lifestyle.
## Footnote
This challenges the idea that ecological changes were necessary for the emergence of anthropoids.
176
True or False: The Fayum fossils are the most abundant late Eocene and Oligocene finds in the world.
True.
## Footnote
They significantly shape our views regarding the diversification of strepsirrhines, tarsiers, monkeys, and apes.
177
Fill in the blank: The Fayum region is located about ______ miles southwest of Cairo.
40.
## Footnote
This proximity contributes to its historical significance.
178
What is Catopithecus?
The earliest anthropoid genus to preserve a skull
## Footnote
Catopithecus provides insight into early catarrhine cranial anatomy, including fully enclosed orbits.
179
What is the parvorder that includes Old World monkeys, apes, and humans?
Catarrhini
## Footnote
Catarrhini is one of the three major divisions of the suborder Haplorhini.
180
What is the general trend for Anthropoidea in terms of activity pattern?
Diurnal activity pattern
## Footnote
This trend reflects the adaptation of these primates to daytime activity.
181
Which superfamily is considered the most primitive anthropoid group?
Parapithecoidea
## Footnote
This superfamily is significant as the possible root stock for the New World anthropoid evolutionary group.
182
To which epoch do the early anthropoid fossils discussed in the text belong?
Oligocene epoch (33 to 23 mya)
## Footnote
The Oligocene epoch is characterized by the emergence of true anthropoids.
183
What are the three families into which early Oligocene primates are generally placed?
Oligopithecids, parapithecids, propliopithecids
## Footnote
These families represent significant evolutionary stages in the development of Old World primates.
184
From which region do the majority of Old World primate fossils of the Oligocene epoch come?
Fayum Depression in Egypt
## Footnote
The Fayum has yielded over 1,000 primate specimens, providing a rich paleontological record.
185
What dental formula is associated with Catopithecus?
2.1.2.3
## Footnote
This formula indicates some derived catarrhine features.
186
According to most scientists, where did the earliest fossil anthropoids originate?
Africa
## Footnote
Current molecular and biogeographical data support an African origin for anthropoids.
187
True or False: The majority of Oligocene primates are known from multiple regions worldwide.
False
## Footnote
Most fossils come specifically from the Fayum Depression in Egypt.
188
Fill in the blank: The vast majority of early Oligocene primate fossils are retrieved from the _______.
Fayum Depression
## Footnote
This region has provided a remarkable paleontological record of an ancient primate ecosystem.
189
What are Patyrrhines?
A group of primates that includes New World monkeys
## Footnote
Patyrrhines are distinct from catarrhines, which include Old World monkeys and apes.
190
What are Cercopithecoids?
A group of Old World monkeys
## Footnote
This group is part of the parvorder Catarrhini.
191
What are Hylobatids?
A family of primates commonly known as gibbons
## Footnote
Gibbons are lesser apes and are part of the Hominoidea superfamily.
192
Which primates are included in the group of Great apes and humans?
Orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, and humans
## Footnote
Great apes belong to the family Hominidae.
193
What is Saadanius?
A significant fossil that may represent a common ancestor of both Old World monkeys and apes
## Footnote
Saadanius provides insights into early primate evolution.
194
What is Propliopithecios?
A genus of propliopithecids known from Oligocene fossils
## Footnote
Propliopithecios is important for understanding early catarrhine evolution.
195
What are Oligopithecids?
An extinct family of early primates from the Oligocene epoch
## Footnote
Oligopithecids are thought to be among the earliest catarrhines.
196
What is Aegyptopithecus?
A genus of propliopithecids proposed as an ancestor of Old World monkeys and hominoids
## Footnote
Aegyptopithecus is known for its well-preserved fossils and significant size.
197
What is Catopithecus known for?
Being the earliest catarrhine with a derived dental formula of 2.1.2.3
## Footnote
Catopithecus provides crucial data for understanding primate dental evolution.
198
What is significant about Apidium?
It is the most abundant Oligocene fossil from the Fayum and had a dental formula of 2.1.3.3
## Footnote
Apidium may have been an ancestor of New World anthropoids.
199
Fill in the blank: Apidium likely lived in _______ social groups.
polygynous
200
What does sexual dimorphism in canine size in Apidium suggest?
Possible polygynous social behavior
## Footnote
Sexual dimorphism can indicate mating systems in primates.
201
What type of locomotion did Aegyptopithecus exhibit?
Short-limbed, heavily muscled, slow-moving arboreal quadruped
## Footnote
This locomotion type suggests adaptations to an arboreal lifestyle.
202
What is the dental formula of Aegyptopithecus?
2.1.2.3
## Footnote
This dental formula is characteristic of derived catarrhines.
203
True or False: Aegyptopithecus had a large brain size similar to modern monkeys.
False
204
What is the significance of the discovery of Parapithecus?
It provides insight into the cranial anatomy of early anthropoids
## Footnote
Parapithecus is closely related to Apidium.
205
What is the parvorder classification of Platyrrhini?
A taxonomic group below infraorder
## Footnote
Platyrrhini includes only New World monkeys.
206
What genus has historically been proposed as the ancestor of both Old World monkeys and hominoids?
Aegyptopithecus
## Footnote
Aegyptopithecus was long viewed as the best candidate from the Fayum.
207
Which genus has recently been proposed as the ancestor of both Old World monkeys and hominoids?
Saadanius
## Footnote
Saadanius defies current attribution to any existing catarrhine family or superfamily.
208
What is the significance of the recent discovery of Saadanius?
It sheds light on the timing of the cercopithecoid-hominoid split
## Footnote
Saadanius dates to 29 to 28 mya, within a critical period in the evolution of our lineage.
209
What major evolutionary gap does Saadanius help to fill?
The gap between 30 and 23 mya
## Footnote
This gap had very few fossils available to provide insight.
210
What are some significant features of Saadanius?
* Projecting midface
* Tubelike middle ear
* Large broad molars
211
What is the importance of the tubelike middle ear found in Saadanius?
It is a characteristic shared with crown catarrhines
## Footnote
This excludes the propliopithecids.
212
What time period do the earliest anthropoids in the New World date to?
Late Eocene
## Footnote
They are closely related to early African anthropoids.
213
Which genus from the late Eocene of Amazonian Peru does not resemble any modern New World monkey?
Perupithecus
## Footnote
It has been linked to Talahpithecus from North Africa.
214
When did the platyrrhine-catarrhine lineages diverge?
Approximately between 50 and 35 mya
## Footnote
This is supported by recent molecular data.
215
What is Branisella and why is it significant?
A remnant of the first platyrrhine radiation
## Footnote
It is so primitive that it's not placed in any living platyrrhine lineage.
216
What is the estimated weight of Branisella?
About 2 pounds
217
What is the oldest known crown platyrrhine and when is it dated to?
Panamacebus, dated to 21 mya
218
What is the significance of Panamacebus in relation to fossil cebines?
It is most closely related to fossil cebines
## Footnote
This was discovered during an expansion of the Panama Canal.
219
What is the significance of Callicebus?
Callicebus is a genus of New World monkeys that provides insight into primate evolution.
220
What time period does 16 mya refer to in relation to primate evolution?
16 mya refers to a significant point in the evolutionary timeline of primates.
221
What does the term 'Oligocene primates' refer to?
'Oligocene primates' refer to primates that existed during the Oligocene epoch, approximately 30 to 23 million years ago.
222
List three genera of New World monkeys mentioned.
* Ateles
* Saimiri
* Cebus
223
What does the cladogram of extant groups of New World monkeys illustrate?
It illustrates the evolutionary relationships and divergence times among various New World monkey species.
224
What are Perupithecus and Branisella representative of?
They are representative of the basal adaptive radiation of the stem group of New World monkeys.
225
What is the significance of Panamacebus in primate evolution?
Panamacebus has been positioned within the crown group of New World monkeys, indicating its evolutionary relevance.
226
What is the first evidence of overwater crossing by platyrrhines?
The first evidence is the arrival of platyrrhines in South America via 'island hopping'.
227
What does the term 'platyrrhines' refer to?
Platyrrhines refer to a group of New World monkeys that are characterized by their broad, flat noses.
228
What are the proposed theories for the origin of platyrrhines in South America?
* Antarctic migration
* South Atlantic 'island hopping'
229
What does the Antarctic-first crossing scenario suggest?
It suggests that migration could have occurred by crossing water from Africa to Antarctica and then using a land bridge to South America.
230
Fill in the blank: The more likely scenario for the arrival of platyrrhines in South America involves _______.
floating between closely spaced islands across the Atlantic Ocean.
231
What supports the rafting scenario for platyrrhines' arrival in South America?
Paleocurrent modeling indicates that South America and Africa were closer during the Eocene.
232
What additional geographical change may have aided platyrrhines' migration?
An additional drop in sea level that exposed mid-Atlantic islands.
233
What is the relevance of paleo-oceanographic modeling in this context?
It helps to understand the paleocurrent directions that may have influenced primate migration.
234
What is the phenomenon of rafting in relation to animal migration?
Rafting is a method of animal migration for some vertebrates, where animals travel on natural rafts formed by vegetation or other materials.
235
What historical event is mentioned as evidence of natural rafting?
A crocodile was carried 685 miles from Java to the Cocos Islands in 1930.
236
What is the sweepstakes model in evolutionary biology?
The sweepstakes model explains rare migration events, suggesting that unlikely occurrences can lead to significant evolutionary changes over geological time.
237
Who popularized the sweepstakes model?
G. G. Simpson.
238
What situations does the sweepstakes model help explain?
The sudden appearance of primates in areas like Madagascar and the New World where no ancestors are present.
239
What is the shortest distance from the African mainland to Madagascar?
249 miles.
240
How long would it take for small primates to succumb at sea according to Simons' 1976 calculation?
4 to 6 days.
241
What challenges would primates face during a long sea voyage?
Lack of food and water, salt imbalance, and exposure.
242
What alternative explanation is proposed for the dispersal of primates besides direct rafting?
Island hopping, where primates may have used intermediate islands before reaching their final destinations.
243
What concept did Alain Houle research regarding distant dispersal of vertebrates?
Floating islands that could provide microhabitats for small vertebrates to cross ocean barriers.
244
True or False: Rafting is universally accepted as the only explanation for primate dispersals.
False.
245
Fill in the blank: Rafting is presumed to have been the method of primate colonization of _______.
Madagascar.
246
What is the significance of vegetation rafts in the context of primate dispersal?
They could support microhabitats allowing primates to reach distant islands.
247
What major flaw was identified in the sweepstakes model regarding primate survival?
Primates would need to survive the voyage for the model to be valid.
248
What is suggested about the journey of primates to the New World?
They may have engaged in random dispersals on vegetation rafts from distant islands.
249
What is the significance of the Central American Seaway in the dispersal of Panamacebus?
It provided a hypothetical route for dispersal that required 'island hopping'.
## Footnote
This concept is based on a drawing from Bloch et al., 2016.
250
What method of colonization has been recently used to explain early hominin colonization of islands in Southeast Asia?
Accidental colonization without the use of swimming or seafaring technology.
## Footnote
This idea was discussed by Ruxton and Wilkinson, 2012.
251
What was the outcome of the competition between cercopithecoid monkeys and hominoids during the Miocene?
Cercopithecoid monkeys emerged victorious as the dominant group.
## Footnote
Today, the number of ape groups is limited compared to their diversity in the Miocene.
252
What major discovery from the Oligocene bridges the gap between earlier forms and Miocene Old World monkeys?
Nsungwepithecus, dated to 25 mya from Tanzania.
## Footnote
This specimen exhibits incomplete bilophodonty and supports the molecular divergence date of Old World monkeys and apes.
253
What are the two families that cercopithecoids fall into?
* Extinct victoriapithecids
* Living cercopithecids
254
What characterized the late Miocene for monkeys in the Old World?
It was a highly successful time for their radiation.
## Footnote
Their descendants evolved during the Pliocene and the Pleistocene with varied size, locomotion, and diet.
255
Fill in the blank: The __________ are known as the Old World monkeys.
cercopithecoids
256
True or False: The diversity of ape groups today is greater than during the Miocene.
False
257
What is the significance of Theropithecus brumpti?
It is considered the most bizarre fossil monkey
## Footnote
Theropithecus brumpti lived in the Omo Basin of Ethiopia about 3 million years ago.
258
What does the family tree of early catarrhines illustrate?
It shows the relationships to modern Old World monkeys and apes
## Footnote
Different colors represent various groups: red for living apes, green for Old World monkeys, orange for precursors to apes, purple for primitive catarrhines, and blue for Fayum early anthropoid radiation.
259
What is a Y-5 molar?
A molar that has five cusps with grooves forming a Y shape
## Footnote
This characteristic is typical of hominoids.
260
How did the Miocene epoch affect the climate and environment of Africa?
The early Miocene was warmer and wetter than the Oligocene, leading to subtropical dense woodlands
## Footnote
This environment was crucial for the evolution of the first apelike primates.
261
When did the evolutionary lineages leading to monkeys and apes diverge?
Approximately 28 million years ago
## Footnote
This is supported by molecular evidence and fossil discoveries like Saadanius.
262
What is a defining feature of the superfamily Proconsuloidea?
The presence of the Y-5 molar pattern
## Footnote
Despite their apelike teeth, many early forms had monkey-like postcranial skeletons.
263
What are proconsuloids commonly referred to as?
Dental apes
## Footnote
This name reflects their apelike teeth but monkey-like postcranial skeleton.
264
What are proconsuloids viewed as in relation to later hominoids?
They are considered general precursors to all later hominoids
## Footnote
This view is supported by various studies in the field.
265
What is the genus name of the first known fossil platyrrhine?
Perupithecus
## Footnote
More closely resembles early African anthropoids than crown platyrrhines
266
Which epoch does the genus Saadanius belong to?
Oligocene
## Footnote
Saadanius is recognized as the first stem catarrhine
267
What is the significance of the genus Biretia?
It is the most complete remains of an early African anthropoid, possibly nocturnal
268
Identify a key region where Proconsul fossils have been found.
East Africa
## Footnote
Some fossils have also been recovered from Namibia
269
What is the estimated time range for the existence of Proconsul?
20 to 17 million years ago
270
What type of diet did Proconsul likely have?
Fruit-eating
271
What is the dental pattern exhibited by Proconsul?
Apelike Y-5 dental pattern
272
Fill in the blank: Proconsul may not have had a _______.
tail
273
True or False: Proconsul is considered a direct ancestor of modern monkeys.
False
## Footnote
Proconsuloids are often placed outside of Hominoidea
274
Which genus is known for having a long snout and procumbent incisors?
Afropithecus
275
What does the thick enamel of Afropithecus teeth suggest about its diet?
A diet of hard fruits
276
What is a notable characteristic of Afropithecus's molars and premolars?
Sexual dimorphism exceeds that of living gorillas
277
What locomotion pattern is indicated by the limb and hand bones of Afropithecus?
Quadrupedal
278
Where was the first example of Proconsul discovered?
Rusinga Island, Kenya
279
What is the bilophodont molar pattern associated with?
Old World monkeys
280
What type of molars are seen in hominoids?
Y-5 molars
281
List three regions where key early anthropoids have been found.
* The Fayum (Egypt)
* Saudi Arabia; Afro-Arabia
* Peru; South America
282
What distinguishes cercopithecoids from hominoids in terms of molar structure?
Cercopithecoids have bilophodont molars, while hominoids have Y-5 molars
283
What is the earliest known ancestor of all Old World monkeys?
Proconsul
## Footnote
Proconsul is a genus from which many scientists believe modern apes and humans evolved.
284
What is the dental pattern characteristic of Proconsul?
Y-5 dental pattern
## Footnote
This dental pattern is a key feature in distinguishing certain primate groups.
285
What lifestyle is associated with Afropithecus?
Quadrupedal arboreal lifestyle
## Footnote
This indicates that Afropithecus was adapted to life in trees and moved on all fours.
286
Around what time did Afropithecus provide evidence of migration into Europe?
16 to 18 million years ago
## Footnote
This timing is significant for understanding primate evolution and migration patterns.
287
What group of primates is known to have undergone a rapid adaptive radiation in the Miocene?
Pliopithecoidea
## Footnote
Pliopithecoidea includes early forms of catarrhines that show primitive features.
288
What significant geological event occurred around 19 million years ago?
The Arabian Plate moved to its current location
## Footnote
This created a land bridge for animal migrations between Africa and Eurasia.
289
What is Lomorupithecus, and why is it important?
A new genus of pliopithecoid described from Uganda
## Footnote
Lomorupithecus could be the earliest member of the pliopithecoids and has African roots.
290
What does the discovery of Pliobates suggest about ape evolution?
It exhibits a mosaic of primitive and derived features
## Footnote
This challenges existing models of ape evolution and suggests complexities in lineage development.
291
What is the significance of the boney ear tube in living catarrhines?
It is a feature that all living Old World monkeys and apes possess
## Footnote
The presence of this feature indicates evolutionary adaptations among different lineages.
292
What does Pliobates' morphology hint at regarding its ancestry?
It hints at a potential ancestry to gibbons
## Footnote
This suggests that small-bodied catarrhines may have played a more significant role in ape evolution than previously thought.
293
What does the term 'mosaic evolution' refer to in the context of Pliobates?
The combination of primitive and derived features in its anatomy
## Footnote
Mosaic evolution illustrates the complexities of evolutionary development across species.
294
Fill in the blank: The group of pliopithecoids represents the first _______ to colonize both Asia and Europe.
anthropoids
## Footnote
This migration is crucial for understanding the dispersal of early primates.
295
True or False: All pliopithecoids are believed to have living descendants.
False
## Footnote
All forms of pliopithecoids went extinct, with no known living descendants.
296
When did the first true apes appear?
During the early to middle Miocene, approximately 17 mya.
297
What superfamily do true apes belong to?
Hominoidea.
298
From which ancestor did the first true apes presumably come?
An African proconsuloid ancestor.
299
What trait is common among the earliest hominoids?
Thick enamel on their molars.
300
What was a key feature of the environments that early true apes adapted to?
Hard-object feeding, such as tough, fibrous fruits and nuts.
301
What climate characterized Miocene Europe?
Warm and humid with lush subtropical forests.
302
Through what geographical feature did Afropithecus venture out of Africa?
Land bridges.
303
Which regions have scant evidence of the initial hominoid radiation?
France, Spain, Italy, Greece, Austria, Germany, Slovakia, and Hungary.
304
What is the significance of Griphopithecus?
It is the earliest true ape known, dated to roughly 17 mya.
305
Where was Griphopithecus first discovered?
Southern Germany.
306
What distinguishes hominoids from other primates?
The lack of a tail.
307
What adaptations did Griphopithecus lack compared to later apes?
More suspensory adaptations.
308
What type of teeth did Griphopithecus have?
Thickly enameled and more generalized teeth.
309
At what time did Griphopithecus migrate into the Asian continent?
About 15 mya.
310
Which genus is the first apelike primate to leave Africa?
Afropithecus.
311
What is the significance of the teeth pattern in true apes?
The Y-5 pattern molars.
312
What is the epoch associated with Ouranopithecus?
Late Miocene.
313
Which ape is believed to have returned to Africa to give rise to living great apes and humans?
Gigantopithecus.
314
Fill in the blank: The largest ape that ever lived is _______.
Gigantopithecus.
315
True or False: Griphopithecus had a tail.
False.
316
What is the evolutionary significance of Griphopithecus?
It may have given rise to both the later radiations of European and Asian apes.
317
What is the significance of Dryopithecus in hominoid evolution?
Represents a Eurasian linchpin providing stock for both European and Asian apes
## Footnote
Dryopithecus is the best-known European hominoid of the middle Miocene.
318
During which time period did Dryopithecus exist?
Middle Miocene (circa 12 to 10 mya)
## Footnote
Dryopithecus fossils have been found in southern France and northern Spain.
319
What cranial and postcranial features are associated with Dryopithecus?
Long arms, large hands, long fingers
## Footnote
These features signify an ability to brachiate.
320
What type of diet did Dryopithecus likely have?
A diet of both fruits and leaves
## Footnote
This is suggested by the relatively thinly enameled teeth of Dryopithecus.
321
What does the skeletal and dental remains of Dryopithecus suggest about its habitat?
Highly arboreal species, rarely descending from high-canopy forested habitat
## Footnote
This is unlike most other great apes.
322
What environmental changes occurred in Europe during the Miocene?
The subtropical environment began to cool and swampy areas dried
## Footnote
These changes led to the extinction of many forest-adapted animals.
323
What is Ouranopithecus and when did it exist?
A late Miocene European fossil hominoid (9.6 to 8.7 mya)
## Footnote
Ouranopithecus shares many facial features with living African great apes.
324
What features of Ouranopithecus' face resemble those of modern African great apes?
Large browridges and a wide distance between the eye orbits
## Footnote
This indicates a close evolutionary relationship.
325
What kind of diet did researchers suggest Ouranopithecus had?
A diet consisting of relatively hard foods, such as nuts
## Footnote
This is inferred from its powerful jaws and thick molar enamel.
326
What does the variation in body and canine size of Ouranopithecus indicate?
A range of sexual dimorphism comparable to that of the modern gorilla
## Footnote
This suggests a complex social structure similar to modern gorillas.
327
What was the initial incursion of hominoids into Asia marked by?
The expansion of Griphopithecus into western Asia
## Footnote
This occurred around 15 mya.
328
What geographical range did Asian fossil apes occupy during the Miocene?
From Turkey in the west to China in the east
## Footnote
This indicates a diverse Miocene fossil ape assemblage.
329
What anatomical features are characteristic of Sivapithecus?
Concave profile, broad zygomatics, procumbent maxilla and incisors
## Footnote
These features resemble the face of the modern orangutan.
330
What is the estimated weight range of Sivapithecus?
70 to 150 pounds
## Footnote
This indicates it was a large hominoid.
331
How did Sivapithecus likely move in its environment?
Arboreal niche with a mode of arboreal quadrupedalism
## Footnote
It lacked the ability for brachiation.
332
What is notable about the discovery of Gigantopithecus?
Discovered through fossils used in traditional Chinese medicine
## Footnote
This highlights the unconventional means of its discovery.
333
What is Gigantopithecus commonly known as?
Gigantic ape
## Footnote
The name reflects its large size and is derived from the term 'gigantic.'
334
Who is Gigantopithecus blacki named after?
Davidson Black
## Footnote
Davidson Black was a colleague of the discoverer of 'Peking Man.'
335
Where were the teeth of Gigantopithecus sourced from?
Guangxi Province, China
## Footnote
This region is known for its karstic landscape, characterized by eroded limestone.
336
What evidence suggests Gigantopithecus had a wider habitat than previously thought?
A Giganto tooth found in Thailand
## Footnote
This find indicates that the giant apes' range extended beyond China.
337
What significant remains of Gigantopithecus have been found?
Four lower jaws and almost 2,000 isolated teeth
## Footnote
No other bones of Gigantopithecus have been discovered.
338
How much did the Chinese species of Gigantopithecus likely weigh?
More than 500 pounds
## Footnote
This estimate is based on the size of its mandibles.
339
What was the estimated height of Gigantopithecus when standing erect?
Possibly 8 feet tall
## Footnote
However, it was likely a terrestrial fist walker.
340
What trend is observed in the evolution of Gigantopithecus?
Increase in size over time
## Footnote
This trend is also seen in other large Pleistocene mammals, such as the mammoth.
341
What was the size comparison between Gigantopithecus giganteus and Gigantopithecus blacki?
Gigantopithecus giganteus was about half the size
## Footnote
Gigantopithecus giganteus lived around 8.6 million years ago, while blacki lived around 2.0 million years ago.
342
What adaptations did Gigantopithecus have for its diet?
Thick enamel on cheek teeth and robust jaws
## Footnote
These adaptations were suited for consuming tough, fibrous foods.
343
What type of diet have some researchers suggested for Gigantopithecus?
Primarily bamboo
## Footnote
This is similar to the diet of the giant panda.
344
What did more detailed studies of Gigantopithecus teeth reveal about its diet?
A wider range of plants and fruits, including durian
## Footnote
Durian is a tropical fruit known for its tough outer skin.
345
True or False: Gigantopithecus was the largest primate that ever lived.
True
## Footnote
It holds the title of the largest known primate based on fossil evidence.
346
Fill in the blank: The genus Gigantopithecus evolved to become _______.
larger over time
347
What is Gigantopithecus?
A giant ape that lived in Asia, known for its massive size and existence for over 8.5 million years.
## Footnote
Gigantopithecus was a vegetarian and went extinct around 300,000 years ago due to climatic changes.
348
How tall could Gigantopithecus grow?
Up to 8 feet tall.
## Footnote
This height makes it one of the largest known apes.
349
What factors contributed to the extinction of Gigantopithecus?
Climatic and environmental changes, particularly the transition from bamboo forests to grasslands.
## Footnote
This change made it difficult for the vegetarian giant to survive.
350
What is Lufengpithecus?
A medium-sized ape from southern China, dated to the late Miocene (10 to 6 mya).
## Footnote
Known from a complete fossil assemblage, including crania and teeth.
351
What is the estimated adult body weight of Lufengpithecus?
About 110 pounds.
## Footnote
This weight indicates it was smaller than Gigantopithecus.
352
What notable features are associated with Lufengpithecus?
Narrow interorbital distance, ovoid orbits, and curved phalanges.
## Footnote
These features suggest potential relationships to modern orangutans and the European Dryopithecus.
353
What geographical feature contributed to the survival of Lufengpithecus?
The uplift of the Tibetan Plateau.
## Footnote
This created a protected area referred to as a 'lost world.'
354
What recent discoveries have been made regarding Pleistocene cave sites in southern China?
Teeth and jaws belonging to a previously unknown medium-sized ape, referred to as the 'mystery ape.'
## Footnote
These findings include an upper jaw, lower jaw, and numerous isolated teeth.
355
What does the current evidence suggest about great ape lineages in Pleistocene Asia?
There were three distinct lineages: Gigantopithecus, Pongo (orangutans), and the medium-sized 'mystery ape.'
## Footnote
This indicates a rich diversity of hominoids in ancient Asia.
356
True or False: Lufengpithecus is believed to have survived until at least 6 million years ago.
True.
## Footnote
It existed within a protected area of the Tibetan Plateau.
357
What molecular evidence indicates the gibbon-great ape split?
It occurred 20 million years ago (mya)
## Footnote
(Perelman et al., 2011)
358
When did extant hylobatids diverge from one another?
Between 9 to 6 million years ago
## Footnote
(Perelman et al., 2011)
359
What is the significance of Yuanmoupithecus in the study of gibbon evolution?
It supports the divergence date of 9 million years ago
## Footnote
(Harrison et al., 2008)
360
What features differentiate pliopithecoids from gibbon ancestors?
They share primitive features such as:
* Lack of a tubelike middle ear
* Presence of a small tail
* Similar elbow joint to Fayum primates
361
Where did the gibbon radiation likely begin?
In mainland Asia, possibly in China
## Footnote
(Harrison et al., 2008)
362
How did gibbons disperse to Malaysia and Sumatra?
Via tropical forests connected by land bridges of the Miocene
363
What modern taxa resulted from gibbons differentiating in Sumatra?
The modern Hylobates
364
When did gorillas diverge from humans and chimpanzees?
About 8 million years ago
## Footnote
(Perelman et al., 2011)
365
When did the divergence between humans and chimpanzees occur?
At 6.6 million years ago
## Footnote
(Perelman et al., 2011)
366
What is the 'ape gap' in relation to the African fossil record?
Hominoids disappear from the record about 13 million years ago and reappear in the late Miocene about 10 million years ago
## Footnote
(Hill, 2007)
367
What hypothesis explains the appearance of hominoids in Africa during the late Miocene?
Eurasian fossil apes migrated into Africa at the same time colobine monkeys were dispersing from Africa
368
What is Ouranopithecus and its significance?
A large-bodied hominoid from Greece, considered a candidate for a stem African ape/human ancestor
369
What evidence supports the classification of Ouranopithecus?
Facial similarities with African apes and humans
370
What is Nakalipithecus and its relevance to human evolution?
A 9.9- to 9.8-million-year-old hominoid from Kenya, possibly close to the last common ancestor of African great apes and humans
371
What dietary evidence is suggested by Nakalipithecus's dental features?
Indicates a hard-object diet, suggesting a terrestrial lifestyle
## Footnote
(Kunimatsu et al., 2007; Nakatsukasa and Kunimatsu)
372
What is suggested about the Samburu Hills of northern Kenya?
It was a hotbed of hominoid activity
373
What are some genera of hominoids known from the Miocene?
* Griphopithecus
* Dryopithecus
* Ouranopithecus
* Nakalipithecus
## Footnote
These genera represent the diversity of hominoids during the Miocene epoch.
374
What significant discovery was made in 2005 near Lake Baringo, Kenya?
Several teeth of a fossil chimpanzee
## Footnote
This discovery adds fossil time depth to the Pan lineage and dates to approximately 500,000 years ago.
375
What is the significance of the fossil chimpanzee teeth found in Kenya?
They represent the first and only fossils belonging to the genus Pan
## Footnote
Fossils of this nature are rare due to the unpreserving conditions of tropical forest environments.
376
How do the fossil teeth compare to modern chimpanzees?
Exhibit greater similarities to the common chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) than to bonobos (Pan paniscus)
## Footnote
This suggests a closer evolutionary relationship to common chimpanzees.
377
What issue complicates the identification of African ape and chimpanzee fossils?
Difficulty in distinguishing them from early hominins
## Footnote
This is due to the mix of primitive and derived traits observed in some fossils.
378
What is the controversy surrounding the genus Ardipithecus?
Rebranding reveals a complex mix of traits
## Footnote
This has led some researchers to believe it may not be a hominin but rather a descendant of a late Miocene African ape.
379
What is the ancestral documentation status of the orangutan?
Probably the best documented among living apes
## Footnote
This suggests a clearer evolutionary history compared to other apes.
380
What role does Griphopithecus play in the evolutionary history of apes?
It is the sister group of the Homininae
## Footnote
This indicates a close evolutionary relationship to gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans.
