Izzys Notes Flashcards
1
Q
What is the Cenozoic Era?
A
The most recent geological era, following the Mesozoic Era.
2
Q
What period is known as the Quaternary Period?
A
The most recent geological period, which includes the Holocene and Pleistocene Epochs.
3
Q
When did the Holocene Epoch begin?
A
0.01 MYA.
4
Q
When did the Pleistocene Epoch begin?
A
1.8 MYA.
5
Q
What is the Tertiary Period?
A
A former geological period that includes the Pliocene, Miocene, Oligocene, Eocene, and Paleocene Epochs.
6
Q
When did the Pliocene Epoch begin?
A
5 MYA.
7
Q
When did the Miocene Epoch begin?
A
23 MYA.
8
Q
When did the Oligocene Epoch begin?
A
34 MYA.
9
Q
When did the Eocene Epoch begin?
A
55 MYA.
10
Q
When did the Paleocene Epoch begin?
A
65 MYA.
11
Q
What is the Precambrian Eon?
A
The earliest eon in Earth’s history, preceding the Cambrian period.
12
Q
What is the Hadean Eon?
A
The eon named after Hades, representing the time from the formation of the Solar System to the solidification of the Earth.
13
Q
How long ago did the Solar System form?
A
4.6 billion years ago.
14
Q
What is accretion?
A
The process of growth or increase by gradual accumulation of layers or matter.
15
Q
What significant event occurred in the Archaean Eon?
A
Continental plates formed and the first life appeared.
16
Q
When is the fossil evidence of the first life dated?
A
3.7 BYA.
17
Q
What are Cyanobacteria?
A
The oldest known life forms on Earth, evidenced by fossil colonies like Stromatolites.
18
Q
Where were the earliest Stromatolites found?
A
Australia, South Africa, and Greenland.
19
Q
What does autotrophic mean?
A
Organisms that can produce their own organic material from inorganic substances.
20
Q
What are prokaryotes?
A
Elementary single-celled organisms lacking an organized nucleus and structured organelles.
21
Q
What are stromatolites?
A
Fossilized colonies of autotrophic prokaryotes.
22
Q
What types of experiments have scientists conducted regarding organic material?
A
They experimented to create organic material from inorganic substances but have only succeeded in creating basic organic structures.
23
Q
What is ATP?
A
Adenosine Triphosphate, the powering molecule of the cell.
24
Q
True or False: The date of 3.7 BYA for the first life is confirmed.
A
False.
25
What is the Phanerozoic Eon?
The current geological eon, encompassing the most recent 541 million years of Earth's history.
26
What era transforms reptiles into mammals?
Paleozoic Era
27
What significant event occurred during the Cambrian Period?
Cambrian Explosion
28
What are some abundant invertebrates during the Cambrian Period?
* Trilobites
* Brachiopods
* Jellyfish
* Anemones
* Worms/Flatworms
29
What does 'sessile' mean?
Permanently attached to something
30
Why do some oceanographers compare oceans to deserts?
Both environments lack energy sources; deep oceans have no light, preventing photosynthesis.
31
What creatures survive on the sea floor in deep ocean environments?
Groundfish that feed on dead animals from shallower waters
32
When did the first true fish appear?
Ordovician Period, 500 MYA
33
What major transition occurred in fish during the Ordovician Period?
Transition from exoskeleton to internalized endoskeleton
34
What is the significance of fish developing endoskeletons?
Increased speed compared to invertebrates with exoskeletons
35
What major developments occurred during the Silurian Period?
* First air-breathing animals
* Jawed fishes appear
* Plants and insects on land
36
What does the Devonian Period signify?
The age of fish, the first amphibians, and the first forests
37
What adaptations did fish develop to transition to land?
* Gills to lungs
* Float bladders
* A stronger heart
* Internalized skeletal structure
38
What limitation did fish face regarding reproduction?
They lay soft, water-permeable eggs that dry out quickly on land
39
What significant developments occurred during the Carboniferous Period?
* First reptiles
* Diversification of amphibians
* Modern insects
40
What adaptations did reptiles have that allowed them to thrive on land?
* Scales to prevent dehydration
* Amniotic eggs with a shell
41
What is the Permian Period known for?
First appearance of mammal-like reptiles and reptile radiation
42
What are synapsids/therapsids?
Semi-mammalian transitional group of reptiles with heat regulatory features
43
What is adaptive radiation in reptiles?
Rapid expansion and diversification as they adapt to new niches
44
What does poikilotherm/ectothermic mean?
Cold-blooded; metabolic activity affected by environmental temperature
45
What characteristics did synapsids/therapsids develop?
* Heterodontic features
* Quasi-warm-blooded characteristics
46
What is heterodontism?
Possessing different types of teeth in the mouth
47
How did heterodontism contribute to metabolism in mammals?
Supported varied diets, leading to increased metabolism and heat production
48
What are endothermy and homeothermy?
Adaptations for maintaining body temperature, setting the stage for warm-blooded creatures
49
What era is characterized by the first dinosaurs and egg-laying mammals?
Mesozoic Era
## Footnote
The Mesozoic Era includes the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous periods.
50
What significant event marks the beginning and end of the Triassic Period?
Cataclysmic events (ELE)
## Footnote
ELE stands for Extinction Level Events.
51
When did the Triassic Period begin?
225 MYA
52
What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes dinosaurs from large lizards?
Dinosaurs were warm-blooded and grew more quickly than reptiles
## Footnote
This rapid growth and warm-bloodedness is more similar to mammals.
53
What adaptations did dinosaurs have related to endothermy?
Feathers
## Footnote
Feathers were used for warmth, flight, and biomechanics.
54
How did dinosaurs reproduce?
They laid hard-shelled eggs.
55
What period is known as the great age of dinosaurs?
Jurassic Period
56
When did the Jurassic Period occur?
190 MYA
57
How many different species of dinosaurs existed during the Jurassic Period?
Around 700 different species
## Footnote
There were about 1 million different species over the entire Mesozoic Era.
58
What type of mammals began to dominate during the Jurassic Period?
Warm-blooded egg-laying mammals
59
What significant evolution occurred during the Cretaceous Period?
Placental and marsupial mammals appeared, and the first modern birds evolved.
60
When did the Cretaceous Period begin?
136 MYA
61
What percentage of life forms perished at the end of the Cretaceous Period?
75%
62
What catastrophic event led to the extinction of the dinosaurs?
Impact crater at Chicxulub
63
What were some effects of the meteor impact that led to the extinction of the dinosaurs?
5-mile-high tidal waves, sonic booms, heated planet by 2 degrees, raining hot rocks
## Footnote
These effects caused widespread fires and a darker, colder world.
64
Who discovered iridium in the K/ Pg boundary layer related to the extinction of the dinosaurs?
Luis and Walter Alvarez
65
What element did Alvarez and his father discover that was linked to the extinction event?
Iridium
66
Fill in the blank: The dinosaurs' extinction led to the rise of _______.
mammals
67
True or False: Dinosaurs were ectothermic like modern reptiles.
False
68
What is a Gymnosperm?
A type of plant that produces seeds in open cones, such as pinecones.
## Footnote
Gymnosperms are characterized by their tough and long-living nature.
69
What are the characteristics of Gymnosperms?
Slow-grown, very tough, long-living, and they kill off other plant challengers.
## Footnote
These plants are very successful in maintaining their territory.
70
What event caused the decline of Gymnosperms?
They were killed by the fire from the meteor.
## Footnote
This event led to significant ecological changes.
71
What is an Angiosperm?
Flowering and fruit-bearing plants that produce seeds.
## Footnote
Angiosperms are known for their fast growth and quick reproduction.
72
What are the characteristics of Angiosperms?
Fast-grown, not-so-tough, short-lived, and capable of quick reproduction.
## Footnote
They flourished after the decline of Gymnosperms.
73
What is double fertilization in Angiosperms?
A process where they are born pregnant with 2 generations.
## Footnote
This unique reproductive strategy is a defining feature of Angiosperms.
74
Where do Angiosperms primarily spread?
They spread across the entire world, especially in tropical zones.
## Footnote
Their adaptability allows them to thrive in various environments.
75
How did the emergence of fruits impact animal evolution?
Fruits fed surviving animals, leading to the development of arboreal adaptations in primates.
## Footnote
This adaptation allowed primates to climb trees and eat fruits.
76
Fill in the blank: Angiosperms existed during the dominating period of _______ and before the meteor.
Gymnosperms.
## Footnote
This context highlights the evolutionary timeline of these plant groups.
77
True or False: Gymnosperms are characterized by their fast reproduction.
False.
## Footnote
Gymnosperms are slow-growing and not known for quick reproduction.
78
What is the kingdom that contains more than 20 major groups?
Animalia
79
What phylum includes all animals with a nerve cord, gill slits, and a supporting cord along the back?
Chordata
80
What are the characteristics of vertebrates?
Vertebral column, developed brain, paired sensory structures for sight, smell, and balance
81
How many classes are vertebrates subdivided into?
Five classes
82
Name the five classes of vertebrates.
* Cartilaginous fishes
* Bony fishes
* Amphibians
* Reptiles/Birds
* Mammals
83
What is the field that specializes in establishing the rules of classification?
Taxonomy
84
What term describes a four-legged animal?
Tetrapod
85
What explains the similarities in the forelimb bones of tetrapods?
Descent from a common ancestor
86
What are Hox genes responsible for?
Basic limb plan seen in all subsequent vertebrates
87
What field combines evolutionary biology and developmental biology?
Evo-Devo
88
Fill in the blank: Evo-Devo explains how evolutionary transformations involve changes in the same _______ that direct embryological development.
regulatory genes
89
What does bilateral symmetry mean?
One side is like the other except for certain aspects of internal organs
90
What is a modular body plan?
Made up of repeated segments
91
Which invertebrates have segmented bodies and jointed feet?
Arthropods
92
How does segmentation begin in vertebrates?
With the development of the head and vertebral column
93
What is the structure of individual body parts in humans?
* Upper arms have one bone
* Forearms have two bones
* Wrists have eight bones
* Hands have five digits
94
True or False: Basic genetic regulatory mechanisms in animals have changed significantly over hundreds of millions of years.
False
95
What is the result of a malfunction of Hox genes in the sacrum?
The sacrum is composed of six vertebrae instead of five
## Footnote
This anomaly is due to Hox genes involved in the initial patterning of sacral vertebrae malfunctioning.
96
What does the presence of a sixth lumbar vertebra indicate?
It is the result of a Hox malfunction
## Footnote
The left side having the morphology of a first sacral vertebra and the right side resembling cervical vertebrae exemplifies this.
97
What dictates the embryonic development pattern of species?
The species’ genome
98
How does macroevolution occur?
Through changes in regulatory genes
99
What do regulatory genes control during anatomical development?
They instruct cells to make proteins and different kinds of RNA
100
What is referred to as 'the genetic tool-kit'?
Regulatory genes
101
How conserved are changes in DNA sequences of tool kit genes?
They have been extraordinarily minimal
102
What percentage of the human genome consists of regulatory genes shared with mice?
Roughly 10%
103
What do tool-kit genes exemplify?
Biological continuity among all animals, living and extinct
104
What are the two basic kinds of proteins made by the genetic tool kit?
Transcription factors and protein molecules
## Footnote
Transcription factors bind to specific DNA segments called enhancers or promoters.
105
What is the function of transcription factors?
They switch genes on and off and determine how long those genes produce proteins
106
What is the homeobox?
A highly conserved region of 180 nucleotides in homeobox genes
107
What do Hox genes direct during embryonic development?
The early stages of embryonic development
108
What do Hox genes initially establish in the embryo?
The identity of regions of the body and the pattern of structures along the main body axis
109
What do Hox genes determine later in development?
Where limb buds will form and limb polarity
110
What occurs as a result of mutations in Hox genes?
Transformation of one body part into another
111
How many Hox genes do most invertebrates have?
10 Hox genes
112
How many Hox genes do fruit flies have?
8 Hox genes
113
How many Hox genes do mammals possess?
39 Hox genes
114
On how many different chromosomes are vertebrate Hox genes located?
Four different chromosomes
115
From where are vertebrate Hox genes descended?
Invertebrate Hox genes
116
What are signaling molecules?
Chemical messengers that transmit information between cells, enabling them to coordinate activities and metabolic processes
## Footnote
Signaling molecules play a crucial role in cellular communication and function.
117
What occurs during reception in cell signaling?
Signaling molecules bind to specific receptors on the target cell
## Footnote
This binding is essential for initiating the cellular response.
118
What is signal transduction?
The binding triggers a cascade of events within the cell, often involving second messengers
## Footnote
This process amplifies the signal and leads to a cellular response.
119
What is the cellular response?
The cell responds to the signal, leading to changes in its function, metabolism, or development
## Footnote
This response can vary widely depending on the type of signal and the target cell.
120
Define homologies.
Similarities between organisms based descent from a common ancestor
## Footnote
Homologies provide evidence for evolutionary relationships.
121
Define analogies in evolutionary biology.
Similarities between organisms based strictly on common function, with no assumed common evolutionary descent
## Footnote
Analogies arise from convergent evolution.
122
What is homoplasy?
The separate evolutionary development of similar characteristics in different groups of organisms
## Footnote
This process leads to the development of analogous structures.
123
What is evolutionary systematics?
A traditional approach to classification in which presumed ancestors and descendants are traced in time by analysis of homologous characters
## Footnote
This method emphasizes the historical relationships among organisms.
124
What is cladistics?
An approach to classification that attempts to make rigorous evolutionary interpretations based solely on analysis of certain types of homologous characters
## Footnote
Cladistics focuses on derived characteristics for classification.
125
What is the primary difference between evolutionary systematics and cladistics?
Cladistics more explicitly and rigorously defines the kinds of homologies that yield the most useful information
## Footnote
This difference impacts how evolutionary relationships are interpreted.
126
What must organisms be compared using in both evolutionary systematics and cladistics?
Specific features called characters
## Footnote
The choice of characters can greatly influence classification outcomes.
127
True or False: Both evolutionary systematics and cladistics focus exclusively on analogies.
False
## Footnote
Both approaches focus exclusively on homologies.
128
What does evolutionary systematics explain about DNA?
All life (except for some viruses) shares DNA as the molecule underlying all organic processes
## Footnote
This underscores the fundamental unity of life.
129
What does cladistics focus on to achieve more precise results?
Traits that distinguish particular evolutionary lineages
## Footnote
These traits are typically more informative than ancestral traits.
130
What is a clade?
A group of organisms sharing a common ancestor
## Footnote
Cladistics is the field focused on identifying and interpreting clades.
131
What does monophyletic mean?
Referring to an evolutionary group (clade) composed of descendants all sharing a common ancestor
## Footnote
Monophyletic groups are well-defined and share a single common ancestor.
132
What does polyphyletic mean?
Referring to an evolutionary group composed of descendants with more than one common ancestor; thus not a true clade
## Footnote
Polyphyletic groups do not represent a separate evolutionary lineage.
133
What are ancestral characters?
Characters that are shared through remote ancestry
## Footnote
Ancestral characters are inherited from a distant ancestor.
134
What are derived characters?
Characters that are modified relative to their ancestral state
## Footnote
Derived characters help in identifying clades by showing modifications.
135
How do we classify the relationship of dinosaurs to birds?
Birds are closely related to some dinosaurs, particularly theropods
## Footnote
This relationship has been supported by fossil evidence and shared characteristics.
136
What evidence supports the relationship between primitive birds and dinosaurs?
Similarities between primitive birds from Madagascar and Velociraptors
## Footnote
These similarities suggest a close evolutionary relationship.
137
What discovery was made in China regarding feathers?
Traces of feathers found embossed in fossilized sediments
## Footnote
This supports the connection between birds and dinosaurs.
138
What conclusion did Padian and Chiappe make regarding birds and dinosaurs?
Birds are not only descended from dinosaurs, they are dinosaurs
## Footnote
This parallels the relationship of humans to mammals.
139
What is homoplasy?
The occurrence of similar traits in different lineages not due to common ancestry
## Footnote
Homoplasy can complicate interpretations of evolutionary relationships.
140
What is the significance of examining multiple characteristics in cladistic analysis?
It prevents misinterpretation based on one or two shared traits
## Footnote
Multiple characteristics provide a clearer understanding of evolutionary relationships.
141
What does shared derived refer to?
Specific character traits shared in common between two life forms, useful for making evolutionary interpretations
## Footnote
Shared derived traits are crucial for understanding evolutionary relationships.
142
What are Theropods?
Small-to-medium sized ground living dinosaurs, dated to approximately 150 MYA, thought to be related to birds
## Footnote
Theropods provide insight into the evolution of birds.
143
What is a phylogenetic tree?
A chart showing evolutionary relationships as determined by evolutionary systematics, containing a time component and implying ancestor-descendant relationships
## Footnote
Phylogenetic trees help visualize the evolutionary history of species.
144
What is a cladogram?
A chart showing evolutionary relationships determined by cladistic analysis, based solely on shared derived characters, with no time component
## Footnote
Cladograms focus on the relationships between species rather than their evolutionary timeline.
145
What is the most basic classification in biological taxonomy?
Species
## Footnote
Species serve as the fundamental unit in categorizing living organisms.
146
How is a species defined according to the biological species concept?
A group of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but reproductively isolated from other such groups
## Footnote
This definition emphasizes the importance of reproductive isolation in species formation.
147
What is speciation?
The process by which new species are produced, often involving some form of isolation
## Footnote
Speciation is a critical mechanism in macroevolution.
148
What is geographical isolation?
An isolating mechanism where gene exchange between populations is limited due to physical barriers like oceans or rivers
## Footnote
Geographical isolation plays a significant role in the speciation process.
149
What is behavioral isolation?
Differences that interfere with courtship among species
## Footnote
Behavioral isolation can prevent interbreeding between different species.
150
What does the recognition species concept emphasize?
The ability of individuals to identify members of their own species for mating
## Footnote
This concept supports selective mating and is compatible with the biological species concept.
151
What is the ecological species concept?
A view that defines a species as a group of organisms exploiting a single niche, emphasizing natural selection's role in speciation
## Footnote
This concept highlights how varied habitats can lead to the formation of new species.
152
What is an ecological niche?
The position of a species within its physical and biological environments, defined by components such as diet and relationships with other species
## Footnote
Each species has a unique ecological niche that contributes to the ecosystem.
153
What is sexual dimorphism?
Differences in physical characteristics between males and females in the same species
## Footnote
For example, humans are slightly sexually dimorphic for body size, with males being taller on average than females of the same population.
154
How do age changes affect mammals?
Age changes alter overall body size and shape
## Footnote
A pertinent example is the change in number, size, and shape of teeth from deciduous teeth to permanent dentition.
155
What is the biological significance of variation in fossil species?
Variation can be intraspecific or interspecific
## Footnote
Intraspecific refers to individual, age, and sex differences, while interspecific represents differences between reproductively isolated groups.
156
Define intraspecific.
Within species, variation seen within the same species
157
Define interspecific.
Between species, variation beyond that seen within the same species
158
What are paleospecies?
Species defined from fossil evidence, often covering a long time span
159
What types of variation occur in fossils?
Variation occurs spatially and temporally
## Footnote
Spatially refers to variation over space, while temporally refers to variation through time.
160
Who are splitters in paleontology?
Researchers that claim speciation occurred frequently and identify numerous fossil hominin species
161
What do lumpers assume about speciation?
Speciation was less common and sees variation as being intraspecific
162
What does 'sensu lato' mean?
In the broadest sense, referring to a collection of fossils lumped into a group
163
What does 'sensu stricto' mean?
In the strictest sense, referring to a collection of fossils that have been split into more specific groups
164
Which genus is particularly noted for variation in fossil classification?
Genus Homo
165
What is a genus?
A group of species composed of members more closely related to one another than they are to species from any other genus.
166
Define adaptive zone.
A general ecological lifestyle that is more basic than the narrower ecological niche characteristic of an individual species.
167
What does the Great Ape Project advocate for?
The extension of basic human rights to great apes.
168
What are fossils?
Traces or remnants of organisms found in geological beds on the earth’s surface.
169
What is mineralization?
The process in which parts of animals (or some plants) become transformed into stone-like structures.
170
What is diagenesis?
The chemical exchange of minerals between the dead organism and the surrounding burial environment that turns bones and teeth into fossils.
171
What is taphonomy?
The study of how bones and other materials come to be buried in the earth and preserved as fossils.
172
What is the geological time scale?
The organization of earth history into eras, periods, and epochs, commonly used by geologists and paleoanthropologists.
173
What are the three eras encompassing vertebrate evolution?
* Paleozoic
* Mesozoic
* Cenozoic
174
When do the earliest vertebrates appear in the fossil record?
Dating to early in the Paleozoic at 500 mya.
175
What significant event occurred at the end of the Paleozoic?
Several varieties of mammal-like reptiles were diversifying.
176
Fill in the blank: The Great Ape Project emphasizes the close genetic similarities between humans (Homo sapiens) and _______.
[Pan troglodytes]
177
True or False: Fossils can form rapidly in a matter of days.
False
178
What is the primary focus of the study of taphonomy?
Understanding the burial and preservation processes of bones and materials.
179
Fill in the blank: The process of mineralization usually occurs very _______.
[slowly]
180
True or False: The Paleozoic era is the most recent era in the geological time scale.
False
181
What can be completely replaced during mineralization?
The original minerals within the bone or tooth.
182
What is continental drift?
The movement of continents on sliding plates of the earth’s surface
183
What massive landmass did the continents form during the late Paleozoic?
Pangea
184
During the early Mesozoic, which southern continents split off from Pangea?
* South America
* Africa
* Antarctica
* Australia
* India
185
What was the large southern continent formed from Pangea called?
Gondwanaland
186
What northern landmass was formed from the northern continents?
Laurasia
187
What major concept related to time did the late Stephen Jay Gould refer to as geology’s greatest contribution?
Deep time
188
Who was a founder of modern geology and contributed to the concept of deep time?
James Hutton
189
What analogy did Carl Sagan create to represent the timeline of the universe?
Cosmic calendar
190
What event marks the beginning of the universe in the cosmic calendar?
The Big Bang
191
What are epochs in the geological time scale?
Subdivisions of periods
192
Name the epochs included in the Cenozoic era.
* Paleocene
* Eocene
* Oligocene
* Miocene
* Pliocene
* Pleistocene
* Holocene
193
What is the significance of the Cenozoic era in relation to mammals?
It is often referred to as the Age of Mammals
194
What evolutionary advantage do mammals have over reptiles?
Larger brains
195
What part of the brain became enlarged in mammals to control higher brain functions?
Neocortex
196
What is the neocortex responsible for?
Integrating incoming information from different sensory organs
197
What is required for the development of the complex mammalian brain?
A longer, more intense period of growth
198
True or False: Humans are classified as mammals.
True
199
Fill in the blank: The last epoch of the Cenozoic era is often referred to as the _______.
Recent epoch
200
What is a placental?
A type of mammal that became the most widespread and numerous during the Cenozoic, represented by upward of 20 orders, including the primates
## Footnote
Placentals develop young in utero with the aid of a placenta.
201
Define heterodont.
Having different kinds of teeth, characteristic of mammals, which include incisors, canines, premolars, and molars
## Footnote
This arrangement allows for processing a wide variety of foods.
202
What is the ancestral mammalian dental complement?
A total of 44 teeth, with 11 teeth in each quarter of the mouth
## Footnote
This includes incisors for cutting, canines for grasping, and premolars and molars for grinding.
203
What does endothermic mean?
Able to maintain internal body temperature by producing energy through metabolic processes within cells
## Footnote
Characteristic of mammals, birds, and perhaps some dinosaurs.
204
Name the three subgroups of living mammals.
* Egg-laying mammals (monotremes)
* Pouched mammals (marsupials)
* Placental mammals
## Footnote
Marsupials have young that are born immature and develop in an external pouch.
205
What is adaptive radiation?
The relatively rapid expansion and diversification of life-forms into new ecological niches
## Footnote
This occurs when part of a population leaves due to resource depletion.
206
What are the two factors that allow a species to diverge into many variations?
* Its adaptive potential
* The adaptive opportunities of the available niches
## Footnote
These factors influence the extent of diversification.
207
Define generalized characteristics.
Traits that are adapted for many functions
## Footnote
These traits provide a flexible evolutionary basis for rapid diversification.
208
Define specialized characteristics.
Traits that are limited to a narrow set of functions
## Footnote
These traits usually arise from a generalized ancestor.
209
What is the relationship between ancestral and derived characters?
Ancestral characters are usually more generalized, while specialized characteristics are nearly always derived
## Footnote
This reflects the evolutionary transition from generalization to specialization.
210
What is microevolution?
The small-scale evolutionary changes within a species or population
## Footnote
This concept challenges the traditional view of its direct application to macroevolution.
211
What is macroevolution?
The large-scale evolutionary changes that occur over long periods of time
## Footnote
It encompasses the broader patterns of evolution and diversification.
212
What is the difference in time scale between macroevolution and microevolution?
Macroevolution takes much longer than microevolution to occur.
213
What is an example of microevolution in modern human populations?
Some modern human populations adapted in just a couple of thousand years to living at high altitudes.
214
List some factors that result in the destruction and removal of animal carcasses.
* Carnivore and rodent scavenging
* Freeze-thaw and wet-dry cycles
* Transport of remains by water
* Sun exposure
* Invasion by microbes and plants
* Trampling by large animals
215
How does burial affect an animal carcass in terms of taphonomic processes?
By being buried, an animal carcass avoids many of the taphonomic processes that occur on the earth’s surface.
216
What determines skeletal preservation once an animal carcass is buried?
Skeletal preservation is largely determined by the burial environment, especially the pH of the surrounding soil and groundwater.
217
According to the Linnaean taxonomic system, how are life-forms classified?
Life-forms are classified based on their homologous traits (shared) rather than their analogous traits (homoplasies).
218
What are the two major types of classification in evolutionary biology?
* Evolutionary systematics
* Cladistics
219
How does evolutionary systematics differ from cladistics?
Evolutionary systematics uses homologous characteristics to hypothesize evolutionary relationships and shows them through a phylogenetic tree, while cladistics uses only derived homologous characteristics and does not show evolutionary relationships through time.
220
What is the biological species concept?
Species are groups of individuals capable of fertile interbreeding but are reproductively isolated from other such groups.
221
What are fossils and how can they form?
Fossils are traces of ancient organisms that can form through methods including the conversion of hard tissues to a stone-like material via mineralization.
222
What defines vertebrates?
Vertebrates are animals with a segmented backbone (vertebral column), a developed brain, and paired sensory structures.
223
What characteristics define humans as placental mammals?
* Development in utero (live birth)
* Differently shaped (heterodont) teeth
* More complex brains
* Maintenance of a constant internal body temperature (endothermic)
224
What additional characteristics do placental mammals have compared to other mammals?
* More complex brains (with a large neocortex)
* Longer periods of development
* More complex social behavior
225
What is the time scale for macroevolution and what process can it result in?
Macroevolution takes many hundreds or thousands of generations and can result in the appearance of new species (speciation).
226
How quickly can microevolution occur?
Microevolution can occur within just a few generations.
227
Fill in the blank: Fossils can include fragments of shell, bones, and teeth as well as _______.
[impressions left from ancient animals such as footprints and cast impressions]
228
What does pentadactylism refer to?
Generalized limb structure with 5 fingers and 5 toes
229
What is a key feature of primate digits?
Highly mobile digits, frequently opposable thumbs and dextrous toes
230
What type of sensory receptors are mechanoreceptors?
Sensory receptors that detect mechanical stimuli like touch and pressure
231
What are epidermal ridges commonly known as?
Fingerprints
232
What is the clavicle more commonly known as?
Collarbone
233
What is the significance of the snout or muzzle in primates?
Abbreviated snout; lesser dependence on sense of smell
234
Why did primates adapt to having a lesser sense of smell?
Due to adaptation to living in trees
235
What is prognathism?
Having a pronounced snout or muzzle
236
What is a rhinarium?
The moist hairless pad on the tip of the muzzle
237
What is the benefit of forward-facing eyes in primates?
Enhances depth perception
238
What type of vision do primates require for jumping between branches?
Stereoscopic vision
239
What is binocular vision?
A characteristic that helps see predators before they attack
240
What is stereoscopic vision?
The ability of depth perception in vision
241
What does the refinement of the visual system in primates lead to?
Highly developed full color vision
242
Why did primates develop color vision?
Due to the age of angiosperms
243
What is the relationship between angiosperms and primates?
Mutually dependent and beneficial relationship
244
What do primates do with ripe fruit?
Eat the fruit and expel the seeds
245
Fill in the blank: Unripe fruit stays ______ to keep animals away.
green
246
What happens to fruit once its seeds are ready to be spread?
It changes color to attract primates
247
What is encephalization?
The size of a brain in relation to the body
## Footnote
Encephalization is a key characteristic of primates, indicating a higher level of cognitive function.
248
How are primates characterized in terms of encephalization?
Primates are always encephalized
## Footnote
This means that primates have larger brains relative to their body size.
249
What is the relationship between encephalization and behavioral plasticity?
Encephalization is always correlated with behavioral plasticity
## Footnote
Behavioral plasticity refers to the ability to adapt behaviorally to different situations.
250
Define behavioral plasticity in the context of primates.
Higher intelligence, able to come up with various solutions when a mammal is confronted with a problem
## Footnote
This reflects the cognitive flexibility of primates.
251
What social behaviors are related to resource acquisition in primates?
Group living and complex social behaviors
## Footnote
These behaviors enhance survival and resource access.
252
How does having larger brains benefit primates?
Allows primates to adapt to their environment or a lack of resources
## Footnote
Larger brains contribute to problem-solving and social interactions.
253
What is a characteristic of primate infant dependency?
Prolonged period of infantile dependency
## Footnote
This results in slower growth rates and greater parental investment.
254
What reproductive strategy do primates follow?
K-selected reproductive strategy
## Footnote
This strategy involves producing fewer offspring with a higher investment in parental care.
255
What is the significance of producing fewer offspring in primates?
It allows for greater parental investment in fewer young
## Footnote
This enhances the survival rate of offspring, especially in tree-dwelling environments.
256
Fill in the blank: Primates take care of their young more than any other _______.
order or species
## Footnote
This highlights the unique parental care strategies of primates.
257
What is a singular birth rate in primates?
The tendency to have singular births rather than litters
## Footnote
This is part of their K-selected reproductive strategy.
258
What epoch is known for 'The rise of the Archaic or Proto-primates'?
Paleocene Epoch
## Footnote
65-55 MYA
259
What are the controversial early mammals classified as semi-order?
Plesiadapiformes
## Footnote
Characterized by difficulties discerning mammal from primate
260
Where are Plesiadapiformes best known from?
Fossil finds in Montana and Wyoming
## Footnote
Similarities to later Eocene promisians
261
How many families of Plesiadapiformes are recognized?
6 families recognized, 3 discussed in the book
## Footnote
Includes Purgatoriidae, Plesiadapidae, and Carpolestidae
262
What is the oldest archaic family of Plesiadapiformes?
Purgatoriidae (purgatorius)
## Footnote
Existing from 66-63 MYA
263
What is the average size of the Purgatoriidae species?
6 inches long, 1.3 ounces
## Footnote
Diurnal burrowing insectivore
264
What indicates that Purgatoriidae were capable of climbing?
Taral bones of feet
## Footnote
Suggests adaptations for climbing
265
What was the first archaic family discovered and in what year?
Plesiadapidae (plesiadapis), discovered in 1877
## Footnote
Successful family varying in size
266
How do the incisors of Plesiadapidae compare to rodents?
Similar but do not continuously grow or self-sharpen
## Footnote
Indicates different dental adaptations
267
What notable finding was made about Carpolestidae in 1998?
Complete skeleton found
## Footnote
Size of hamster, 3.5 ounces
268
What unique feature do Carpolestidae possess?
Opposable grasping big toes with nails rather than claws
## Footnote
However, claws on hands indicate a mixture
269
What is the Eocene Epoch?
55-34 MYA
## Footnote
This epoch is characterized by the emergence of the first prosimians.
270
What does 'prosimians' mean?
Means before there were apes/monkeys
## Footnote
Prosimians are considered the earliest primates.
271
What are the first eurpimates?
First primates and true primates
## Footnote
They possess a sufficient number of primate characteristics.
272
What are ancestral/mammalian traits of prosimians?
Large orbits, pronounced muzzle with rhinarium, unfused mandible, no post-orbital plate
## Footnote
These traits indicate their evolutionary transition from earlier mammals.
273
What are derived/primate traits?
Forward facing eyes, greater encephalization, post-orbital bar, nails rather than claws, opposable big toe, grooming toe
## Footnote
These traits are indicative of more advanced primate characteristics.
274
What is the dental formula for best-known Eocene prosimians?
2.1.4.3
## Footnote
This formula represents 2 incisors, 1 canine, 4 premolars, and 3 molars.
275
What do smaller eye sockets indicate about prosimians?
Indicate diurnality (for day living)
## Footnote
This suggests that they were more adapted to daytime activity.
276
Who discovered Adapis and when?
Cuvier in 1822
## Footnote
Cuvier initially confused it for a hooded ungulate.
277
What is the dental formula for tarsier-like omomyoids?
1.1.3.3
## Footnote
This suggests a different evolutionary path from adapoids.
278
What does the large orbits in omomyoids indicate?
Most are nocturnal
## Footnote
This adaptation is typical for night-active species.
279
What significant event occurred 160 MYA regarding Madagascar?
Madagascar separates from Africa
## Footnote
This led to unique evolutionary paths for species on the island.
280
How did lemurs reach Madagascar?
Rafting
## Footnote
They used large trees to float across the ocean.
281
What is unique about female lemur social structure?
Females are the leaders and select the males they want to mate with
## Footnote
This matriarchal system is distinct among primates.
282
What is the mating behavior of rival male lemurs?
They engage in a tail-stench contest
## Footnote
This involves climbing trees and using their tails to compete.
283
What are lemurs considered in terms of evolutionary history?
Living fossils
## Footnote
They maintain many primitive traits compared to other primates.
284
What taxonomic group includes all monkeys, apes, and hominins?
Anthropoidea
## Footnote
Anthropoids are characterized by their evolutionary adaptations from earlier primates.
285
When did the Oligocene epoch occur?
33-23 MYA
## Footnote
The Oligocene is significant for the evolution and diversification of primates.
286
What are the main differences between prosimians and anthropoids?
Prosimians have unfused frontal bone and symphysis, while anthropoids have fused frontal bone and mandibular symphysis
## Footnote
These differences contribute to variations in jaw strength and dietary adaptations.
287
What is a characteristic of all anthropoids?
Postorbital Closure
## Footnote
This feature is associated with the evolution of a more complex visual system.
288
What dental feature is absent in anthropoids?
Dental Comb
## Footnote
The absence of this feature indicates a dietary shift towards more efficient food processing.
289
What is the significance of the Fayum Depression?
It was a lush tropical rain forest promoting fossilization
## Footnote
Elwyn Simons conducted extensive research there, discovering many primate genera.
290
What did Elwyn Simons discover in the Fayum Depression?
More than 20 different genera of primates
## Footnote
This includes 5 prosimians and the earliest known anthropoid monkeys.
291
What adaptations do anthropoids have regarding their teeth?
They have no dental comb and nails instead of sharp claws
## Footnote
These adaptations reflect their dietary needs and arboreal lifestyle.
292
What type of jaw strength do anthropoids possess?
Stronger jaw
## Footnote
This allows for a change in diet and more effective food processing.
293
Fill in the blank: The earliest anthropoids are _______ species.
monkey-like
## Footnote
This indicates their evolutionary position in the primate lineage.
294
True or False: All anthropoids have a larger brain compared to prosimians.
False
## Footnote
While anthropoids have adaptations for a more complex lifestyle, their brain size is not always larger.
295
What is Catopithecus?
Earliest monkeys in the world
## Footnote
Features include a weight of 1.3 pounds, small orbits with full closure at back, and a dental formula of 2.1.2.3.
296
What is the dental formula of Catopithecus?
2.1.2.3
## Footnote
Indicates a diet of predominantly insect prey.
297
What does the fusion of the midline of the frontal bone in Catopithecus suggest?
Evolutionary adaptation
## Footnote
Reflects adaptations in primate skull structure.
298
What is the size comparison of Parapithecus/Apidium to modern animals?
About the size of a modern squirrel
## Footnote
Weighs approximately 3 pounds, slightly larger than a squirrel.
299
What are the limb proportions of Parapithecus/Apidium indicative of?
Arboreal quadrupeds
## Footnote
Longer legs relative to vertebral column suggest increased speed and stride length.
300
What is the dental formula of Parapithecus/Apidium?
2.1.3.3
## Footnote
Similar to that of New World monkeys.
301
How might Parapithecus/Apidium have reached South America?
Island hopping and rafting
## Footnote
Suggests a possible migration route.
302
What does the dental structure of Parapithecus/Apidium suggest about their diet?
Fruit eaters with some seeds
## Footnote
Canines display extreme sexual dimorphism.
303
What is Aegyptopithecus considered to be an ancestor of?
Both the old world and new world monkeys and hominoids
## Footnote
Represents a significant evolutionary link.
304
How much does Aegyptopithecus weigh?
13 to 18 pounds
## Footnote
Comparable in size to modern howler monkeys.
305
What is the dental formula of Aegyptopithecus?
2.1.2.3
## Footnote
Reflects dietary adaptations in this species.
306
What is currently disputed about Aegyptopithecus?
Degree of encephalization
## Footnote
Relates to brain size and cognitive abilities.
307
What type of movement is Aegyptopithecus adapted for?
Slow moving arboreal quadruped
## Footnote
Suggests adaptations for life in trees.
308
Fill in the blank: Aegyptopithecus has a selective advantage over _______.
smaller monkeys
## Footnote
This advantage relates to resource utilization.
309
What is the time period of the Miocene?
23-5 MYA
310
What type of environment was early Miocene Africa?
Expansive rain forest ideally suited for larger-bodied primates
311
How many genera and species of apes existed during the Miocene based on fossil discoveries?
A minimum of 30 genera and 100+ species of apes
312
What happened to the majority of apes by the end of the Miocene epoch?
They went extinct
313
What thrived in comparison to apes during the Miocene?
Monkeys
314
What climate conditions existed in Africa around 25 MYA?
Wet and humid, majority rain forest
315
What significant geological activity contributed to climate changes during the Miocene?
Plate tectonics
316
What geological event commenced around 19 MYA in Africa?
Creation of the Great Rift Valley (GRV)
317
What geological formation was accelerated by the subduction of the Indian/South Asian Plate beneath the Eurasian continent?
Himalayan Plateau
318
What change in locomotion allowed apes to increase in size, power, and speed?
Changing their main form of motion to swinging on branches
319
What happens to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) when it gets deflected by a continent?
The current will shift
320
What effect does the ACC have on the temperature of tropical zones?
It picks up heat and becomes warmer
321
What was the result of the heat change in the ACC during the Miocene?
Melting of ice and increasing water on the planet
322
What occurred when Australia moved northward in relation to the ACC?
The ACC began to get colder again, leading to rapid ice formation
323
What was the consequence of the increase in Antarctic ice for the rest of the world?
The rest of the world became drier
324
Fill in the blank: The rain forest environment began to disappear, along with the _______.
[apes]
325
What are Hot Spots?
Places where intense convection is occurring in a relatively concentrated space on a continuing basis
## Footnote
Hot magma gets cooled and heated, bringing up so much heat that the crust melts, liquifies, and stretches to become more elastic.
326
What happens over time at a Hot Spot?
Continues heating under the surface produces an uplifted area
## Footnote
This process can create features like volcanoes, as seen in Hawaii.
327
What significant geological feature forms as Africa moves northward over a Hot Spot?
A triple junction
## Footnote
This is where the earth's crust cracks open into three separate lines at approximately 120 degrees.
328
What are the three arms of the triple junction formed by Africa's movement?
* The Red Sea
* The Gulf of Aden
* The East African Rift
329
What environmental change occurs due to west to east air flow disruption across Africa?
General drying up of rain forests
## Footnote
This leads to the creation of a mosaic environment in equatorial Africa.
330
What is a rain shadow?
An area that receives significantly less moisture due to geographic barriers
## Footnote
In this context, the East African highlands create a rain shadow effect.
331
What does the 'Mosaic Environment' consist of?
* Tropical woodlands
* Shrublands
* Grasslands
* Savannas
332
What prompted apes to come to the ground?
Resources scattered across spaces
## Footnote
This led to the development of bipedalism for resource transport over long distances.
333
What effect did decreased resources have on apes?
They needed to leave the trees and go to the ground
## Footnote
This was necessary to access livable habitats.
334
What challenges did apes face when coming to the ground?
Trouble making the distance with their characteristics adapted to survive and move in the trees.
335
How did some apes adapt to the mosaic environment?
They started walking distances with more efficiency and began to carry things back with them.
336
What evolutionary significance does the Great Rift Valley have?
It played a role in the evolution of hominins due to the mosaic habitat it created.
337
What is the taxonomic superfamily that includes all apes and hominins?
Hominoidea
## Footnote
Hominoidea refers to tailless primates.
338
What are the key features that distinguish Old World Monkeys from Apes?
* Narrow palate and nose
* Smaller brain
* Billophodont molars
* Longer torso and shorter arms
* Tails
## Footnote
Old World Monkeys have distinct anatomical features compared to Apes.
339
What are the key features of Apes?
* Broad palate and nose
* Larger brain
* For more encephalization
* Single molars with Y-5 pattern
* Shorter torso
* No tails
## Footnote
Apes are adapted for different locomotion and are more compact.
340
What is Saadanius and its significance in primate evolution?
A genus of Oligocene stem catarrhines, likely a common ancestor to all Old World Monkeys and Apes
## Footnote
Saadanius lived 28 MYA and has ape-like features.
341
What are the notable features of Saadanius?
* Size of modern gibbon
* Male based on size of canine teeth
* Sagittal crest indicating rough vegetable material
* Ectotympanic structure
## Footnote
The ectotympanic ties Saadanius to Old World primates.
342
What do puncture wounds on the skull of Saadanius indicate?
It was killed by a predator
## Footnote
This suggests predatory threats in its environment.
343
Who discovered Proconsuloids and where?
Mary Leakey in 1948 at Lake Rusinga, Kenya
## Footnote
Proconsuloids are known as proto-apes or dental apes.
344
What are the features of Proconsuloids?
* Diverse body size (10-150 pounds)
* Adaptations for quadrupedal locomotion
* Generalized cranium with Y-5 molar pattern
* No tail
* Likely nut and fruit-eater
## Footnote
They roamed rainforests and open woodlands.
345
What is Dryopithecus and when did it live?
An almost true ape that lived 12-10 MYA
## Footnote
It was the first European ape discovered in the 19th century.
346
What are the features of Dryopithecus?
* Long arms
* Large hands
* Long fingers
* Thin enamel on teeth
## Footnote
These features suggest adaptations for brachiation and an arboreal lifestyle.
347
What does the thin enamel on the teeth of Dryopithecus suggest about its diet?
It suggests a diet consisting of fruit and some leaves
## Footnote
This indicates a preference for a lush rainforest environment.
348
What is Ouranopithecus and when did it live?
An almost true ape that lived 9.6-8.7 MYA
## Footnote
Discovered in northern Greece in the 1970s.
349
What are the key features of Ouranopithecus?
* Broad face with huge supraorbital torus
* Squarish orbits
* Powerful jaw
* Thick enamel with low cusps
## Footnote
These features suggest sexual dimorphism similar to gorillas.
350
What does the thick enamel with low cusps in Ouranopithecus indicate about its diet?
Nuts and tubers were essential parts of its diet
## Footnote
This suggests greater time spent on the ground rather than in trees.
351
When did Sivapithecus live and what is its significance?
Lived 12 MYA, well after the split between Asian and African apes
## Footnote
It shows similarities to orangutans in facial structure.
352
What anatomical feature of Sivapithecus is adapted for tree climbing?
Flexible ankles
## Footnote
This adaptation indicates its arboreal lifestyle.
353
What are the members of the primate suborder Strepsirrhini?
Lemurs and lorises
## Footnote
Strepsirrhines are characterized by their wet noses and reliance on olfactory cues.
354
What does the term Haplorhini refer to?
Members of the primate suborder haplorhini, which includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans
## Footnote
Haplorhines generally have larger brains and rely more on vision than smell.
355
Define 'derived' in the context of evolutionary biology.
Being or having a feature that is not present in the ancestral form.
356
What does 'orthograde' describe?
An upright body position, relating to the position of the head and torso during activities like sitting and climbing.
357
What is a superorder in taxonomy?
A taxonomic group ranking above order and below a class or subclass.
358
What are sister groups in evolutionary biology?
New clades that result from the splitting of a single common lineage.
359
What significant primate events occurred during the Paleocene epoch?
First archaic primates, plesiadapiforms emerged.
360
What are euprimates?
True primates, a term coined by Elwyn Simons in 1972.
361
What is the last common ancestor (LCA)?
The final evolutionary link between two related groups.
362
What is a crown group?
All of the taxa that come after a major speciation event.
363
Define 'stem group' in taxonomy.
All of the taxa in a clade before a major speciation event.
364
What is molecular anthropology?
A field that uses genetics to investigate the biology and evolution of humans and our closest relatives.
365
What is the molecular clock concept?
The idea that DNA mutations occur at a relatively constant rate, allowing estimation of time since two species shared a common ancestor.
366
What does the term 'postcranial' refer to?
All or part of the skeleton not including the skull.
367
What are plesiadapiforms best known for?
A large number of fossil finds from the American West, especially Montana and Wyoming.
368
What is the significance of the family Purgatoriidae?
It includes the oldest recognized archaic primate, Purgatorius.
369
What traits did Eocene euprimates possess?
* Forward-facing eyes
* Greater encephalization
* Postorbital bar
* Nails instead of claws
* Opposable big toe
370
What does 'island hopping' refer to in evolutionary terms?
Traveling from one island to the next.
371
Define 'subfossil'.
Bone not old enough to have become completely mineralized as a fossil.
372
What is bilophodont?
Referring to molars that have four cusps oriented in two parallel rows.
373
What is the sweepstakes model in evolution?
A concept popularized by evolutionist G. G. Simpson regarding the dispersal of species.
374
What is the significance of the extinct Archaeolemur?
It had fused mandibles and bilophodont molars, resembling a monkey more than a lemur.
375
What is Megaladapis known for?
Being the best-known of the giant lemurs, weighing 170 pounds and resembling a koala.
376
What is the focus of paleoprimatologists?
The study of the nonhuman primate fossil record.
377
Which group is considered the earliest haplorhine?
The tarsier-like omomyoids.
378
What is Teilhardina?
An extinct marmoset-like omomyid primate that lived during the Early Eocene epoch.
379
What does the structure of the upper molar tooth roots in Biretia imply?
Large orbits, suggesting that Biretia was nocturnal.
380
What superfamily has Elwyn Simons placed Biretia into?
Parapithecoidea.
381
The name Fayum likely comes from which ancient Egyptian word?
Baym, meaning 'lake or sea'.
382
What was the first primate discovered in Egypt?
Apidium.
383
What are 'lower-sequence primates' and 'upper-sequence primates'?
Terms referring to their placement in the stratigraphic section.
384
What is the dental formula of derived catarrhines?
2.1.2.3.
385
What is the significance of Catarrhini?
It includes Old World monkeys, apes, and humans.
386
What distinguishes Platyrrhini from Catarrhini?
Platyrrhini includes only the New World monkeys.
387
What region is most significant for Old World primate fossils of the Oligocene epoch?
Fayum Depression in Egypt.
388
What family are among the earliest catarrhine anthropoid primates?
Oligopithecids.
389
What genus from the parapithecid family has the most fossils?
Apidium.
390
What is Aegyptopithecus known for?
Being the most significant fossil genus from the Fayum.
391
How is Aegyptopithecus characterized postcranially?
Short-limbed, heavily muscled, slow-moving arboreal quadruped.
392
What is the earliest catarrhine?
Catopithecus.
393
What are the significant features of Saadanius?
A projecting midface, tubelike middle ear, and large broad molars.
394
What distinguishes the middle ear of Saadanius from propliopithecids?
The tubelike middle ear is a characteristic shared with crown catarrhines.
395
What evidence exists of diversification among catarrhines?
Emergence of Old World monkeys and hominoids.
396
What is Nsungwepithecus?
An Oligocene discovery that bridges the gap between Saadanius and Miocene Old World monkeys.
397
What are the features of Old World monkeys?
* Downward facing nostrils
* Two premolars
* Ischial callosities
398
What are the features of New World monkeys?
* Sideways facing nostrils
* Three premolars
* Grasping tail
399
What indicates the diet of Victoriapithecus?
The molars exhibit bilophodonty.
400
What happened to victoriapithecids by 12 mya?
They were replaced by monkeys still alive today, like cercopithecines and colobines.
401
What is Theropithecus known for?
Being an incredibly successful genus throughout much of the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene.
402
What is the only remaining species of Theropithecus?
The gelada (Theropithecus gelada).
403
When did the evolutionary lineages leading to monkeys and apes diverge?
Approximately 28 mya
## Footnote
This divergence is consistent with the fossil evidence of Saadanius.
404
What is a Y-5 molar?
A molar that has 5 usps with grooves running between them, forming a Y shape
## Footnote
This is a characteristic of hominoids.
405
When did the first true apes appear?
During the early to middle Miocene, 17 MYA
406
What unites the earliest hominoids?
Thick enamel on their molars
407
What is the significance of Griphopithecus?
It is the earliest true ape dated to roughly 17 mya
408
What is Dryopithecus known for?
Resembling modern hominoids in cranial and postcranial features, including long arms and large hands
409
When did hominoids begin to colonize Asia?
About 15 mya
410
What do the hominoids of the middle and late Miocene of Asia represent?
One of the most varied Miocene fossil ape assemblages
411
What are zygomatics?
Cheekbones
412
What does 'terrestrial' mean?
Living and locomoting primarily on the ground
413
When did primates begin diverging from closely related mammalian lineages?
At the end of the Cretaceous
414
What epochs comprise the Cenozoic?
Paleocene, Eocene, Oligocene, Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, Holocene
415
What were the earliest primate ancestors likely adapted to?
Arboreally adapted insectivores
416
What significant diversification occurred in the Eocene?
Abundant diversification of euprimates, including adapoids and omomyoids
417
Where did early haplorhine origins date to?
The middle Eocene
418
When did Old and New World anthropoids share their last common ancestry?
In the Eocene or early Oligocene
419
What does the Oligocene reveal about anthropoid ancestors?
Numerous possible early anthropoid ancestors, mostly at the Fayum
420
What does the Miocene reveal about early primates?
The first Old World monkeys and a complex array of ape forms
421
Which early primate is believed to have migrated into Europe?
Afropithecus
422
What is the significance of Yuanmoupithecus?
May be related to the gibbon
423
What is Khoratpithecus likely related to?
Probably closely related to the orangutan
424
What might Nakalipithecus be an ancestor of?
The African apes
425
What is the order that encompasses all primates?
Primates
426
What suborder do lemurs and lorises belong to?
Strepsirrhini
427
What is the infraorder that includes all lemurs?
Lemuriformes
428
Which superfamily includes all lemurs?
Lemuroidea
429
Which superfamily includes all lorises?
Lorisoidea
430
What suborder do monkeys, apes, and humans belong to?
Haplorhini
431
What infraorder includes all monkeys, apes, and humans?
Anthropoidea
432
What parvorder includes all New World monkeys?
Platurrhini
433
What family includes sakis, titis, and uakaris?
Pitheciidae
434
What family includes squirrels?
Cebidae
435
What parvorder includes all Old World monkeys, apes, and humans?
Catarrhini
436
What infraorder includes all tarsiers?
Tarisformes
437
What is a defining characteristic of the Ring-Tailed Lemur?
Female dominated social structure
438
What type of nose do lemurs have?
Wet nose
439
What is the typical activity pattern of the Ring-Tailed Lemur?
Diurnal
440
What is the primary locomotion style of Sifakas?
Vertical clinging and leaping
441
How high can Sifakas jump?
30ft
442
What are the main characteristics of the Slow Loris?
Slow climbing, nocturnal, not a VCL-er
443
What helps the Slow Loris remain undetected by predators?
Slow movement rate
444
What type of eyes do Galagos (Bush Babies) have?
Large eyes
445
What is the primary diet and social behavior of lorises?
Live alone and feed alone
446
What unique adaptation do Slow Lorises have for gripping branches?
Extremely small index finger
447
Fill in the blank: The _______ is famous for its leaping ability.
Sifaka
448
True or False: The Slender Loris is characterized by thin limbs and large eyes.
True
449
What is the social structure of the Black and White Ruffed Lemur?
Similar to Ring-tailed lemur with female dominance
450
What is the physical feature of the Red Ruffed Lemur?
Orange fur coat
451
What is the primary reason for the Slow Loris dropping to the ground?
To escape predators or avoid detection
452
What are the main threats to the Slow Loris?
Predators: Owls
453
What adaptation helps the Slow Loris avoid fatigue in its grip?
Specialized capillaries
454
What are the main characteristics of Tarisformes?
Isolated on taxonomic chart, characteristics similar to loris, galagos, haplorhini, primitive creatures, small, nocturnal, arboreal, VCL, ancient form of haplorhines, unique and unusual creatures
## Footnote
VCL stands for vertical clinging and leaping.
455
What is the diet of Tarsiers?
Carnivorous diet: mainly insects
## Footnote
Tarsiers are known for their hunting skills and diet primarily consisting of insects.
456
What unique feature do Tarsiers have that allows them to rotate their heads?
Large eyes bigger than brain
## Footnote
This adaptation aids their nocturnal lifestyle and hunting.
457
How far can Tarsiers jump?
18 ft
## Footnote
Despite being only 4 inches long, Tarsiers are remarkable jumpers.
458
What family do Uakaris belong to?
Pitheciidae
## Footnote
This family includes Sakis, Titis, and Uakaris, which are New World monkeys.
459
What is a notable characteristic of Uakaris?
Hairless face, orange fur coat (males only), sexual dimorphism
## Footnote
The bright coloration in males is used to attract females.
460
What principle did biologist Zahavi propose regarding mate selection in Uakaris?
Zahavi Principle: Handicap Principle
## Footnote
This principle suggests that females choose males with noticeable traits as indicators of strength and good genes.
461
What is the mating behavior of the Pale-Headed Saki?
Monogamous mating and bond with a mate for life, perform songs/bonding rituals
## Footnote
This social structure helps strengthen pair bonds.
462
Which family do Marmosets belong to?
Cebidae
## Footnote
Marmosets are part of the larger family that includes Capuchins and Tamarins.
463
What is a unique reproductive strategy of Marmosets?
Typically give birth to twins through polyandrous mates
## Footnote
Males take care of one twin each, promoting cooperative breeding.
464
What is the size of the Pygmy Marmoset?
3 inches long
## Footnote
Pygmy Marmosets are the smallest monkeys in the world.
465
What is the notable feature of the Golden Lion Tamarin?
Lion-like mane around neck
## Footnote
This distinctive appearance aids in species recognition.
466
What distinguishes Owl Monkeys from other monkeys?
The only nocturnal monkeys
## Footnote
Their nocturnal habits are similar to Tarsiers.
467
What is the common name for the White Throated Capuchin?
Organ grinder monkey
## Footnote
This name reflects their entertaining behavior and intelligence.
468
True or False: Males are the primary caregivers in Marmoset social structures.
True
## Footnote
Males that are better caregivers are more likely to mate.
