Pre-War and Buildup

Question 1

Explain pre-war history up until after WWI

Answer 1

• Borderland of empires. Was ruled by Ottomans -> Druze and Sunnis have most power here in this PROVINCE -> Christians and Muslims alike employ each other as serfs
• In 17th century, Maronites reconcile with the Church, gain French as western/proto-imperial backers
• French Coerce Ottomans into MAKING “GREATER LEBANON” – AN AUTONOMOUS MAJORITY CHRISTIAN PROVINCE
• Causes Christians to move into once Muslim-dominated areas -> Seed of future ethnic tensions
• French intervene during ethnic riots in 19th century -> precedent for western intervention/backing Maronites.
• After WWI, French get Lebanese mandate -> add in Muslim regions to get better geography (land grabbing) and to use the Muslims as labour.
• 55/45 pop split -> this is what “dooms” Lebanon -> Christian state would have been antagonistic (like Israel) but internally cohesive.
• French have explicit aim to use it as imperial outpost like Britain/Palestine

Question 2

Explain “Greater Lebanon” and Confessionalism

Answer 2

• Lebanon is a unique multi-faith country -> because of sectarian tensions, role of religious figures / patriarchs / priests / imams is outsized in community governance
• Confessionalism is the political system grounded in the authority of these religious leaders -> grants proportional representation based on % of population that religion holds.
• Muslims initially want to join Syria, much like Catholics want to join Republic of Ireland -> but partition keeps them underrepresented / a minority in a settler-dominated state (in this case, a settler BACKED population)
• NATIONAL PACT post Second World War -> compromise -> allocates 6 Christian parliamentary seats for every 5 Muslim (reflection of population. Agree that Arabic will be main language and that there will be no “more European influence”, likewise Lebanese Muslims abandon desire to unit w/ with Syria/pan-Arab world.
• Also outlines necessity that president will be Christian, PM Sunni, etc.
• Hiro says that even the best populist candidate (someone who could unite the population across ethnic lines) can never hope to break the boundaries of confessionalism -> religious figures too powerful, “Once power-sharing took its form, it became the political and economic interests of those in power to maintain the system.”
• Basically seed for POLITICAL CAUSE OF WAR -> Sunni pop outgrew Maronites, intro of Shias, etc. -> Need fair representation like in Northern Ireland/Stormont.

Question 3

Explain Camille Chamoun’s Presidency and the causes of the 1958 civil war

Answer 3

• Remember, NATIONAL PACT is a PACT -> a legal document wherein Muslims refuse pan-Arabism and Christians refuse Western influence.
• But this is the cold war
• 1956 - > Suez Crisis pulls the trigger on these tensions -> Muslims in Lebanon widely support (Soviet-backed) Nasser and Arab nationalism. Ball is in Christians’ court.
• Chamoun, president, causes CONSTITUTIONAL CRISIS by accepting Eisenhower’s financial support in exchange for BECOMING AN ANTI-NASSER (anti Soviet) STATE.
• Syria and Egypt unite into “United Arab Republic” -> first real attempt at pan-Arab state -> radicalize Lebanese Muslims.
• General strike, liberal Christians assassinated by state, Chamoun arguably pulls a fake election. Protests for Chamoun to resign, he doesn’t and declares a state of emergency -> moves to attack opposition WITH HIS OWN CHRISTIAN MILITIAS FUNDED AND ARMED BY ISRAEL.
• Army remains neutral, only intervenes when Muslims might take over Beirut.

Question 4

4. How is the role of the state in Lebanon different from the UK’s role in The Troubles?

Answer 4

• IS biased towards Maronites (officer class) but extremely limited in what it can do because of ethnic makeup of army/
• Restricted to intervening only under pretence of “stopping the violence” even if its often to BAIL OUT THE CHRISTIANS -> like in 1958 when they intervene to stop Muslims from defeating Chamoun.
• Weird relationship between Maronite militias and presidency -> Bachir Gemayel is like if Johnny Adair became president of Northern Ireland (MEMBER / leader of extremist group -> hard right ethno agenda) -> Amin Gemayel is if like Johnny Adair’s unionist moderate brother became president -> NOT extremist, but still fighting for control of Loyalist/Unionist people against LF groups.
• Basically, state is biased -> at once seeking Christian secessionism and allying with Israel (Bachir) AND trying to get a “peace deal” with Israel because Israel invaded the country, which Maronites control (even though they wanted them to intervene), as president Amin Gemayel cannot just nakedly state that Israel should come over and disrespect Lebanese sovereignty, etc.
• In many ways, SYRIA and Israel operate as “the state” in the way the UK did -> Syria is responsible for decommissioning paras after the war, etc.

Question 5

5. What was Palestine/the PLO’s role in sparking the war?

Answer 5

• Refugees there since 1948, but HUGE increase after SIX DAY WAR -> WB and Gaza HAD BEEN PART OF SYRIA AND EGYPT -> NOW OCCUPIED ISRAELI TERRITORY
• PLO sets up shop HERE and begins attacking Israeli territory
• BOTH SIDES RADICALIZED BY POLO’S PRESENCE:
  - Christians see PLO as terrorists and invaders -> start murmuring about Christian separatism (can’t give Muslims power) -> fear that PLO will ally itself w/ LNM and force Lebanon into a pan-Arab state, where they would be a minority. Worried about Israeli invasion.
  
  • Muslims have solidarity w/ Palestinians -> want to SUPPORT THEIR CAMPAIGN, ARE RADICALIZED BY PRESENCE OF HEAVILY ARMED SUNNI MUSLIM GUERRILLAS AND NOW WANT TO OVERTHROW CONFESSIONALISM/STORMONT SYSTEM.
• New political parties allowed in concession -> Baath, Communist -> all revolutionary against the system, allied w/ PLO
• Israeli attack on Beirut airport raises the temperature (1970) Assassinate PLO leaders in downtown Beirut
• State attacks PLO at times, eventually resisted by both PLO AND LNM. State fails to defeat them/expel PLO -> THEREFORE CHRISTIANS FEEL THEY NEED TO TAKE THINGS INTO THEIR OWN HANDS.
• Yom Kippur War -> OPEC Crisis by Arab states at same time as invasion, US and allies stop wanting to support Christians for want of provoking Muslims further. Christians instead turn to ISRAEL for help

Question 6

6. How did the war begin?

Answer 6

• Two strikes. Before this, terrorism and troubles-level violence because of Israeli attacks, revolutionary LNM parties, Christian reactions. Already SOME tit-for-tat killings.
  
  1. (Sunni) Fishermen strike against trawling company owned by Chamoun. Leader of strike killed, widespread rioting. State crushes them, Christian militias do ARMED DEMONSTRATION IN CAPITAL -> radicalizes both sides (Muslims abandon all hope of state siding w/ them against radical Christians) -> Remember, Chamoun led Christian militias himself during 58 war
  2. Ain Runmane massacre (13 April) Bashir Gemayel attended consecration of church in East Beirut, attacked but survives, other Christians killed. BELIEVED ATTACKERS WERE PLO -> Palestinians elsewhere celebrating incursion into Israel, bus drives by singing triumphal songs, Phalangists top bus and kill 27 Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims.
• Fighting instantly begins across country.
• MOST IMPORTANT PRECONDITION FOR THE WAR WAS PRESENCE OF PLO AND CHRISTIAN OPPOSITION TO THEM -> like UDA/UVF bombings and killings out of fear at IRA/loss of power.

Question 7

7. What’s Hiro’s take on the CIA’s role?

Answer 7

• Basically that they pulled the trigger on the war, deliberately
• Kissinger wanted a distraction from Camp David failures AND to prevent a new united Arab front from emerging -> Syria backed Shiites in south, Egypt the Sunnis, etc.
• Main takeaway is that WAR WAS SO PROLONGED AND INTRACTABLE BECAUSE OF EACH PARTY’S FOREIGN BACKERS (Maronites/Israelis, Sunnis/PLO/Egypt/Jordan, Shiites/Syria)