principles

Question 1

what is the difference between endotoxins and exotoxins

Answer 1

Exotoxins are secreted by bacteria where as endotoxins are only released following lysis of the cell.
EXO G+
ENDO G-

Question 2

when does cleavage occur?

Answer 2

24 hours

Question 3

when does implantation occur?

Answer 3

day 6

Question 4

what is gastrulation and when does it occur?

Answer 4

gastrulation is the formation of germ layers, which occurs at week 3

Question 5

where does the primitive streak occur?

Answer 5

the caudal end of the epiblast

Question 6

what does the hypoblast form?

Answer 6

endoderm

Question 7

what does the epiblast form?

Answer 7

ectoderm

Question 8

what will the notochord become?

Answer 8

spinal cord

Question 9

When does the intraembryonic coelom form and what does it divide into?

Answer 9

week 3, visceral and lateral plate

Question 10

what body cavities does the coelom divide into?

Answer 10

pleural, peritoneal and pericardial cavity

Question 11

when does the normal heart start to develop?

Answer 11

week 4

Question 12

the first cells of the heart and start germ layer they are derived from

Answer 12

cardiac progenitors, derived from the visceral layer of lateral mesoderm

Question 13

what does the 1st and 2nd heart field give rise to?

Answer 13

1st- right and left atria, and LV

2nd- RV and outflow tract

Question 14

when does looping of heart occur

Answer 14

day 23

Question 15

name regions of the heart tube after day 23 and how they move into position and what they give rise to

Answer 15

truncus arteriosus- aorta and PT
bulbus cordis- outflow tract + Trabeculated part of RV (moves ventral, caudal and right)
ventricle- Trabeculated LV (moves left)
atria- Trabeculated LA and RA
sinus venosus- smooth part of RA, coronary sinus (moves dorsal and cranial)

Question 16

what structure allows communication between RA and LA until birth

Answer 16

foramen ovale

Question 17

name 2 atrial septa and their character

Answer 17

septum primum (flexible)
septum secondum (rigid)

Question 18

when does the septum primum form and its direction of growth

Answer 18

day 30

grows down towards endocardial cushion

Question 19

Name of gap between septum primum and endocardial cushion

Answer 19

primary ostiem/ foramen

Question 20

when does the septum secondum form and position compared to septum primum

Answer 20

day 33

to right of SP

Question 21

what is the valve of the foramen ovale formed by?

Answer 21

septum primum

Question 22

what does the foramen ovale become in adult

Answer 22

fossa ovalis

Question 23

conditions associated with teratology of the fallot

Answer 23

pulmonary stenosis, RV hypertrophy ventricular septal defect, over riding aorta, patent ductus arteriosus

Question 24

describe 2 ventricular septa

Answer 24

membranous- grows down from endocardial cushion

muscular- grows up from ventricle

Question 25

basic unit of the Nervous System

Answer 25

neuron

Question 26

collection of neurons in CNS

Answer 26

nucleus

Question 27

collection of neurons in PNS

Answer 27

ganglion

Question 28

myelin sheath in CNS

Answer 28

oligodendrocyte

Question 29

myelin sheath in PNS

Answer 29

schwann cell

Question 30

name cranial nerves 1-12 and their function

Answer 30

``` olfactory nerve- special sensory optic nerve- special sensory occulomotor- motor trochlear- motor trigeminal- both abducent- motor facial- both vestibulococlear- special sensory glossopharyngeal-both vagus-both spinal accessory-motor hypoglossal-motor ```

Question 31

where does each cranial nerve enter in each fossa

Answer 31

CN1- anterior fossa CNII-CNVI- middle fossa CNVII- CNXII- posterior fossa

Question 32

name foramen for each cranial nerve

Answer 32

``` CNI- cribiform plate of ethmoid bone CNII- optic canal CNIII, CNIV, V1 and VI- superior orbital fissure CNV2-foramen rotundum CNV3- foramen ovale CNVII, VIII- internal acoustic meatus CNIX-XI - Jugular foramen CNXII- Hypoglossal canal ```

Question 33

Where does spinal cord pass through in head

Answer 33

foramen magnum

Question 34

what protects the spinal cord

Answer 34

vertebral canal

Question 35

divisions of spinal cord and how many nerves

Answer 35

``` 31 nerves in total cervical (8) thoracic (12) lumbar (5) sacral (5) coccygeal (1) ```

Question 36

where does the spinal cord end and name for this

Answer 36

spinal cord ends at L1/L2 conus medullaris

Question 37

2 enlargements of spinal cord

Answer 37

cervical lumbosacral (more nerves for limbs)

Question 38

what is the cauda equina

Answer 38

when lumbar and sacral spinal roots descend in vertebral canal to their intravertebral formen and look like a horses tail

Question 39

where do nerves enter spinal cord

Answer 39

intravertebral foramen (spinal nerve)

Question 40

how many vertebrae for each division of spine

Answer 40

``` 33 in total 7 cervical 12 thoracic 5 lumbar 5 sacral 4 coccygeal ```

Question 41

what are spinal nerves named according to + exception

Answer 41

spinal nerves are named according to vertebrae above it except for cervical region where they are named according to vertebrae below it - C8 which lies between C7 and T1

Question 42

course of sensory nerves

Answer 42

rami to the spinal nerve then through the dorsal root ganglia, then to posterior root then to posterior rootlets- posterior horn of spinal nerve

Question 43

course of motor nerves

Answer 43

from anterior horn of spinal cord - anterior rootlets- anterior roots- spinal nerve- rami

Question 44

dermatome that contains nipple

Answer 44

T4

Question 45

Dermatome of umbilicus

Answer 45

T10

Question 46

What are dermatomes

Answer 46

areas of skin supplied by both anterior and posterior rami of spinal nerves

Question 47

what is a nerve plexus

Answer 47

nerve plexus= intertwinning to anterior rami of spinal nerves (not posterior rami)

Question 48

name 4 nerve plexus, the anterior rami and what they supply

Answer 48

cervical plexus- C1-C4- posterior scalp, neck wall and diaphragm brachial plexus- C5-T1 anterior rami- upper limbs lumbar plexus- L1-L4- lower limbs Sacral plexus L5-S4 anterior rami- lower limbs, gluteal region and perineum

Question 49

what is ischaemic pain due to

Answer 49

lack of blood blow

Question 50

what is colicky pain due to

Answer 50

obstruction

Question 51

what receptors sense pain

Answer 51

nociceptors

Question 52

difference in what sympathetics and parasympathetics supply

Answer 52

sympathetics supply internal organs, body walls and arterioles. parasympathetics only supply internal organs

Question 53

outflow of sympathetics at spinal cord

Answer 53

T1-L2

Question 54

Parasympathetic outflow

Answer 54

CN II, VII, IX, X | sacral nerves II, III, IV

Question 55

how do sympathetics get to the head and neck

Answer 55

hitch a ride with the arteries

Question 56

how do sympathetics reach lower organs

Answer 56

splanchnic nerves

Question 57

which parts of spinal cord have lateral horns

Answer 57

T1-L2

Question 58

what do parasympathetic nerves in the head supply

Answer 58

lacrimal and salivary glands

Question 59

what does the vagus nerve supply and where does it travel as far to

Answer 59

organs of head, neck and abdomen, as far as the mid - gut

Question 60

what do the sacral nerves supply

Answer 60

hindgut, pelvis, perineum