Nature
Refers to our biological endowment, in particular, the genes we receive from our parents
–> influences every aspect of our make up
ex.: physical appearance, personality, intellect
Nurture
Refers to the wide range of environments, that influence our development
ex.: schools –> people we interact with
(physical + social)
Genome
Each persons complete set of hereditary information
–> influences behaviors and experiences and vice versa
Epigenetics
Study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment
ex.: Children with parents who have schizophrenia are at high risk to get it
–> adopted children have an equal chance (environmental factor)
Nature and Nurture
All human characteristics are created through the joint workings of nature and nurture
–> through the constant interaction of our genes + environment
Childrens development as an “active child”
Piaget
- Selectively choose what to pay attention to
ex. : mothers face - Private speech
- -> improves their speech - Fantasy play
- -> acquiring knowledge about self and other people - Make believe dramas
- -> Learning how to cope with fears + how to interact with others
=> their contributions to their own development strengthens and broadens as they grow older
Continuous development
Refers to the idea that changes with age occur gradually
Discontinuous Development
Refers to the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts
–> reasoning: children of different ages seem qualitatively different
Conservation of liquid quantity problem
Classic technique designed to test childrens’ level of thinking
–> 4-5 y/o are not able to understand that the amount of water in the narrower glass is the same as in the broader glass
–> 7-8 y/o will understand the difference
Theory of cognitive development
Piaget
Between brith and adolescence, children go through 4 stages of cognitive growth
–> each characterized by distinct intellectual abilities
Piagets explanation of the conservation problem
2-5 y/o can only focus on one aspect of an event
7-8 y/o can simultaneously focus on and coordinate two or more aspects of an event
Piaget’s fundamental assumptions
- Children are mentally and physically ACTIVE from the moment of birth
- Children LEARN many important lessons ON THEIR OWN rather than depending on adults
- Children are INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED to learn
- -> do not need rewards from other people to do so
Sources of continuity
Piaget
- Assimilation
- Accommodation
- Equilibration
Assimilation
The process by which people incorporate incoming information into concepts they already understood
ex. : child knows a dalmatiner is a dog
- -> will think a cow is also a dog due to similar appearance
Accommodation
The process by which people improve their current understanding in response to new experiences
ex. : parent explains the difference between cow + dog
- -> with the new info the child is able to accommodate prior dog concept to the standard one
Equilibration
The process by which children balance assimilation + accommodation to create a stable understanding
3 Stages of the attainment of Equilibrium
- Equilibrium
- -> being satisfied with ones understanding of a phenomenon - Disequilibrium
- -> new information leads the child to perceive his/her understanding as inadequate - Advanced Equilibrium
- -> Development of a more sophisticated understanding of the phenomenon
=> through numerous such equilibrations children acquire knowledge of the world around them
Sources of discontinuity
Piaget
- Qualitative change
- Broad applicability
- Brief transitions
- Invariant sequence
–> central properties of piagets stage theory
Sensorimotor stage
0-2
Infants intelligence is expressed through their sensory + motor abilities, which they use to perceive the world around them
Steps of the sensorimotor stage
- Newborn reflexes
- Simple motor habits centered around own body
- Become increasingly interested in the world around them, but lack object permanence
ex. : repeatedly dropping toys, squeezing toy duck - Start searching for hidden objects
- -> Object permanence, but A-not-B Error - Actively exploring the potential ways in which objects can be used
- Ability to form enduring mental representations
- -> Deferred imitation
Object permanence
Knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view
A - not - B Error
When reaching for and finding an object several times in one place (A), and the object is now hidden at a different place (B) and one is prevented from immediately searching for it, they tend to reach where they initially found the object (A)
Deferred Imitation
The repetition of other peoples behavior hours or days after it occurred
Pre - operational Stage
2-7
Mix of striking cognitive acquisitions + limitations
–> central characteristics:
a) symbolic representation
b) egocentrism
c) centration
Symbolic representation
The use of one object to stand for another
ex.: a playing card is used as an iPhone
–> as they develop, they rely less on self generated symbols, more on conventional ones
ex.: waring a patch over the eye when playing pirates
Egocentrism
Perceiving the world solely from ones own point of view
–> “Model of 3 mountains” requires children to recognize that their own perspective isn’t the only one possible
–> communication is one sided: talking past each other, only focus on what they themselves are saying
Centration
Focusing on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object/event to the exclusion of other relevant but less striking features
–> explains the conservation of liquid problem
Conservation concept
Merely changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not necessarily change other key properties
Concrete operational stage
7-12
Children can reason logically about concrete objects and events
- -> thinking systematically remains difficult
- -> reasoning about hypothetical situations remains difficult
=> The pendulum problem
Pendulum Frame problem
Task is to perform experiments that indicate which factors influence the amount of time needed for the pendulum to swing through a complete arc
Formal Operational Stage
12+
The ability to think abstractly + reason hypothetically
–> stage is not universal: not all adolescence reach it
Limitations to Piagets theory
- Children thinking is far more variable
- -> 6 y/o might already be able to do what 8 y/o do - Piagets tests were too difficult
- -> infants and children are more cognitively competent than he recognized - Contributions of other people/social interactions play a far greater role
- Unclear which processes lead produce changes in their thinking
Sociocultural theory
Vygotzky
Much of cognitive influence takes place through direct interactions between children and other people
Guided Participation
More knowledgable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage in them at a higher level than they could manage on their own
–> learning is a byproduct, not intentionally
Cultural tools
- Symbol systems
- -> language to express what is meant - artifacts
- -> toys, diagram - Skills
- -> proficiency in language - Values
Vygotzkys fundamental assumptions
- Children are SOCIAL LEARNERS, that are intertwined with other people who are eager to help them gain skills + understanding
- A Childs development is CONTINUOUS with quantitative changes
- Language and thought are integrally related
Vygotzkys definition of “thought”
Internalized speech
–> originates in statements that parents + other adults make to children
The development of thought according to vygotzky
- Children behavior is controlled by other peoples statement
- Children’s behavior is controlled by their own private speech
- Childrens behavior is controlled by internalized private speech ( thought )
–> the progression form external to internalized speech emerges with age + experience
Intersubjectivity
The mutual understanding that people share during communication
–> effective communication requires participants to focus on
a) same topic
b) reactions
Joint Attention
Infants + social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment
–> this increases the childrens ability to learn from other people
Social scaffolding
Refers to a more explicit way of guided participation, where the adult provides a temporary framework
–> the higher the quality of scaffolding, the greater the learning
–> intentional teaching
! must be within the “zone of proximal development” to be effective !
Zone of proximal development
Refers to the area between a childs level of independent performance + level of assisted performance
