Problem 1

Question 1

Nature

Answer 1

Refers to our biological endowment, in particular, the genes we receive from our parents

–> influences every aspect of our make up

ex.: physical appearance, personality, intellect

Question 2

Nurture

Answer 2

Refers to the wide range of environments, that influence our development

ex.: schools –> people we interact with

(physical + social)

Question 3

Genome

Answer 3

Each persons complete set of hereditary information

–> influences behaviors and experiences and vice versa

Question 4

Epigenetics

Answer 4

Study of stable changes in gene expression that are mediated by the environment

ex.: Children with parents who have schizophrenia are at high risk to get it

–> adopted children have an equal chance (environmental factor)

Question 5

Nature and Nurture

Answer 5

All human characteristics are created through the joint workings of nature and nurture

–> through the constant interaction of our genes + environment

Question 6

Childrens development as an “active child”

Piaget

Answer 6

1. Selectively choose what to pay attention to
   ex. : mothers face
2. Private speech
   - -> improves their speech
3. Fantasy play
   - -> acquiring knowledge about self and other people
4. Make believe dramas
   - -> Learning how to cope with fears + how to interact with others

=> their contributions to their own development strengthens and broadens as they grow older

Question 7

Continuous development

Answer 7

Refers to the idea that changes with age occur gradually

Question 8

Discontinuous Development

Answer 8

Refers to the idea that changes with age include occasional large shifts

–> reasoning: children of different ages seem qualitatively different

Question 9

Conservation of liquid quantity problem

Answer 9

Classic technique designed to test childrens’ level of thinking

–> 4-5 y/o are not able to understand that the amount of water in the narrower glass is the same as in the broader glass

–> 7-8 y/o will understand the difference

Question 10

Theory of cognitive development

Piaget

Answer 10

Between brith and adolescence, children go through 4 stages of cognitive growth

–> each characterized by distinct intellectual abilities

Question 11

Piagets explanation of the conservation problem

Answer 11

2-5 y/o can only focus on one aspect of an event

7-8 y/o can simultaneously focus on and coordinate two or more aspects of an event

Question 12

Piaget’s fundamental assumptions

Answer 12

1. Children are mentally and physically ACTIVE from the moment of birth
2. Children LEARN many important lessons ON THEIR OWN rather than depending on adults
3. Children are INTRINSICALLY MOTIVATED to learn
   - -> do not need rewards from other people to do so

Question 13

Sources of continuity

Piaget

Answer 13

1. Assimilation
2. Accommodation
3. Equilibration

Question 14

Assimilation

Answer 14

The process by which people incorporate incoming information into concepts they already understood

ex. : child knows a dalmatiner is a dog
- -> will think a cow is also a dog due to similar appearance

Question 15

Accommodation

Answer 15

The process by which people improve their current understanding in response to new experiences

ex. : parent explains the difference between cow + dog
- -> with the new info the child is able to accommodate prior dog concept to the standard one

Question 16

Equilibration

Answer 16

The process by which children balance assimilation + accommodation to create a stable understanding

Question 17

3 Stages of the attainment of Equilibrium

Answer 17

1. Equilibrium
   - -> being satisfied with ones understanding of a phenomenon
2. Disequilibrium
   - -> new information leads the child to perceive his/her understanding as inadequate
3. Advanced Equilibrium
   - -> Development of a more sophisticated understanding of the phenomenon

=> through numerous such equilibrations children acquire knowledge of the world around them

Question 18

Sources of discontinuity

Piaget

Answer 18

1. Qualitative change
2. Broad applicability
3. Brief transitions
4. Invariant sequence

–> central properties of piagets stage theory

Question 19

Sensorimotor stage

0-2

Answer 19

Infants intelligence is expressed through their sensory + motor abilities, which they use to perceive the world around them

Question 20

Steps of the sensorimotor stage

Answer 20

1. Newborn reflexes
2. Simple motor habits centered around own body
3. Become increasingly interested in the world around them, but lack object permanence
   ex. : repeatedly dropping toys, squeezing toy duck
4. Start searching for hidden objects
   - -> Object permanence, but A-not-B Error
5. Actively exploring the potential ways in which objects can be used
6. Ability to form enduring mental representations
   - -> Deferred imitation

Question 21

Object permanence

Answer 21

Knowledge that objects continue to exist even when they are out of view

Question 22

A - not - B Error

Answer 22

When reaching for and finding an object several times in one place (A), and the object is now hidden at a different place (B) and one is prevented from immediately searching for it, they tend to reach where they initially found the object (A)

Question 23

Deferred Imitation

Answer 23

The repetition of other peoples behavior hours or days after it occurred

Question 24

Pre - operational Stage

2-7

Answer 24

Mix of striking cognitive acquisitions + limitations

–> central characteristics:

a) symbolic representation
b) egocentrism
c) centration

Question 25

Symbolic representation

Answer 25

The use of one object to stand for another ex.: a playing card is used as an iPhone --> as they develop, they rely less on self generated symbols, more on conventional ones ex.: waring a patch over the eye when playing pirates

Question 26

Egocentrism

Answer 26

Perceiving the world solely from ones own point of view --> "Model of 3 mountains" requires children to recognize that their own perspective isn't the only one possible --> communication is one sided: talking past each other, only focus on what they themselves are saying

Question 27

Centration

Answer 27

Focusing on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object/event to the exclusion of other relevant but less striking features --> explains the conservation of liquid problem

Question 28

Conservation concept

Answer 28

Merely changing the appearance or arrangement of objects does not necessarily change other key properties

Question 29

Concrete operational stage | 7-12

Answer 29

Children can reason logically about concrete objects and events - -> thinking systematically remains difficult - -> reasoning about hypothetical situations remains difficult => The pendulum problem

Question 30

Pendulum Frame problem

Answer 30

Task is to perform experiments that indicate which factors influence the amount of time needed for the pendulum to swing through a complete arc

Question 31

Formal Operational Stage | 12+

Answer 31

The ability to think abstractly + reason hypothetically --> stage is not universal: not all adolescence reach it

Question 32

Limitations to Piagets theory

Answer 32

1. Children thinking is far more variable - -> 6 y/o might already be able to do what 8 y/o do 2. Piagets tests were too difficult - -> infants and children are more cognitively competent than he recognized 3. Contributions of other people/social interactions play a far greater role 4. Unclear which processes lead produce changes in their thinking

Question 33

Sociocultural theory | Vygotzky

Answer 33

Much of cognitive influence takes place through direct interactions between children and other people

Question 34

Guided Participation

Answer 34

More knowledgable individuals organize activities in ways that allow less knowledgeable people to engage in them at a higher level than they could manage on their own --> learning is a byproduct, not intentionally

Question 35

Cultural tools

Answer 35

1. Symbol systems - -> language to express what is meant 2. artifacts - -> toys, diagram 3. Skills - -> proficiency in language 4. Values

Question 36

Vygotzkys fundamental assumptions

Answer 36

1. Children are SOCIAL LEARNERS, that are intertwined with other people who are eager to help them gain skills + understanding 2. A Childs development is CONTINUOUS with quantitative changes 3. Language and thought are integrally related

Question 37

Vygotzkys definition of "thought"

Answer 37

Internalized speech --> originates in statements that parents + other adults make to children

Question 38

The development of thought according to vygotzky

Answer 38

1. Children behavior is controlled by other peoples statement 2. Children's behavior is controlled by their own private speech 3. Childrens behavior is controlled by internalized private speech ( thought ) --> the progression form external to internalized speech emerges with age + experience

Question 39

Intersubjectivity

Answer 39

The mutual understanding that people share during communication --> effective communication requires participants to focus on a) same topic b) reactions

Question 40

Joint Attention

Answer 40

Infants + social partners intentionally focus on a common referent in the external environment --> this increases the childrens ability to learn from other people

Question 41

Social scaffolding

Answer 41

Refers to a more explicit way of guided participation, where the adult provides a temporary framework --> the higher the quality of scaffolding, the greater the learning --> intentional teaching ! must be within the "zone of proximal development" to be effective !

Question 42

Zone of proximal development

Answer 42

Refers to the area between a childs level of independent performance + level of assisted performance