PS102 Final Exam Flashcards
(120 cards)
1
Q
CHAPTER 9
A
CHAPTER 9
2
Q
define language production vs comprehension
A
production = the conventional structured expression of thoughts through words
comprehension = the process of understanding spoken, written, or signed language
3
Q
define a phoneme
A
the smallest unit of sound that can distinguish words
an individual sound –> 46 in English
4
Q
define a morpheme
A
the smallest unit of language that convey meaning or function
5
Q
define semantics
A
the study of how meaning in language is constructed of individual words
6
Q
define a syntax
A
the system for using words and word order to convey meaning
7
Q
define pragmatics
A
the practical aspects of language usage, includes speech pace, gesturing, and body language
occurs at 3 years
8
Q
define prevocal learning
A
2-4 months
babies can perceive the phonemes of every language
9
Q
define cooing vs babbling
A
cooing = 2 months, non-crying vocalizations
babbling = 6 months, meaningless speech sounds
10
Q
define telegraphic speech
A
2 y/o
toddlers being to use minimalistic sentences
first evidence of sentence formation
11
Q
define overextension vs underextension vs overregularization
A
overextension = specific words –> broader instances
underextension = general words –> specific instances
overregularization = over applying newly learned grammatical rules in improper parts of speech
12
Q
define SKINNER vs BANDURA’s theories on language
A
SKINNER = adults shape child’s speech through reinforcement
BANDURA = children learn by imitating adults
13
Q
define child directed speech
A
speech characterized by exaggerated emotional responses and a slower pace that is cross-culturally common among caregivers communicating with babies and young children
BEHAVIORIST THEORY
14
Q
define CHOMSKY’s nativist theories of language development
A
humans are biologically programmed to acquire language
language acquisition device (LAD)
15
Q
define interactionists theories of language development
A
nature and nurture contribute to language acquisition
children biologically prepared to learn and require extensive experience
sensitive periods
16
Q
what is BROCA’s area
A
brain region –> frontal lobe
speech PRODUCTION
17
Q
broca’s aphasia vs agrammatism
A
aphasia = damage to broca’s area –> unable to produce coherent speech
agrammatism = damage to brain region anterior to broca’s area –> incapable of using words in grammatical sequences
18
Q
what is WERNICKE’s area
A
brain region –> temporal lobe
language COMPREHENSION
19
Q
define wernicke’s aphasia
A
damage to wernicke’s area –> unable to understand language
20
Q
define the linguistic relativity hypothesis
A
the available vocabulary for objects/concepts in a language influences how speakers of the language think about them
21
Q
define cognitive control
A
the ability to direct thought in accordance with ones intentions
22
Q
define algorithm vs heuristic problem solving strategies
A
algorithm = ALWAYS leads to a solution, methodically
heuristic = short thinking strategy, doesn’t guarantee a correct response
23
Q
define mental set vs functional fixedness
A
set = tendency to use problem solving strategies that have worked in the past
fixedness = tendency to view objects as having only one function
24
Q
define representativeness heuristic
A
the assumption that individuals share characteristics of the category they are a member of
25
define availability heuristics vs conjunction fallacy
heuristic = judging easily recalled events as more common
fallacy = estimate odds of two uncertain events happening together as greater than the odds of them happening alone
26
define bounded rationality
in many situations our ability to make rational decisions is limited by a lack of information, time constraints, or emotions attached to the problem at hand
27
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 10
28
define intelligence
ability to learn, meet the demands of the environment effectively, and to understand and control ones mental activities
29
define factor analysis
a statistical method for determining whether certain items on a test correlate high, forming a unified set, or cluster, of items
30
define Spearman's two factor theory of intelligence
used factor analysis to determine the structure of intelligence
- intelligence performance governed by
general intelligence and specific
intelligence
G factor = underlies all distinct clusters of mental ability
- general intelligence
S factor = tied to a distinct mental ability or area of functioning
- specific intelligence
31
what are Thurstone's 7 primary mental abilities
7 distinct mental abilities which act as the basic components of intelligence
1. verbal comprehension
2. word fluency
3. numerical skills
4. spatial ability
5. associative memory
6. perceptual speed
7. reasoning
32
define the theory of multiple intelligences
HOWARD GARDNER
believed there is no single, unified intelligence, but several independent intelligence's arising from different portions of the brain
33
list Gardner's 9 types of intelligences
1. linguistic
2. logical/mathematical
3. musical
4. spatial
5. interpersonal
6. bodily/kinesthetic
7. intrapersonal
8. naturalistic
9. existentialist
34
define the triarchic theory of intelligence
ROBERT STERNBERG
believe intelligence is made up of 3 interacting components
1. internal/analytic
2. external/creative
3. experiental/pratical
35
define the bioecological model of intelligence
STEPHEN CECI
believe that intelligence is a function of the interactions among innate potential abilities, environmental context, and internal motivations
36
define the psychometric approach
attempts to measure intelligence with carefully constructed psychological tests
- intelligence tests
37
content validity vs validity coefficient vs predictive validity
content = degree to which the content of a test accurately represents what the test is intended to measure
coefficient = a correlation coefficient that measures validity by correlating test scores with some external criterion
predictive = the extent to which scores on a particular test successfully predict future performance on a measure related to the test
38
what was ALFRED BINET (1990s) contributions to intelligence
developed the first standardized intelligence test
hired by Paris government to identify slower learning students
coined the term MENTAL AGE
- age at which an individual is performing
intellectually
39
what was SIR FRANCIS GALTON (1869) contributions to intelligence
argued mental ability is inherited
created the *theory of psychophysical performance*
- tested sensory processing, motor skills,
and reaction times
40
what was LEWIS TERMAN (1916) contribution to intelligence
brought intelligence tests to North America through the *Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale*
developed *intelligence quotients (IQ)*
- measure of intelligence, ratio of a child's
mental age to their chronological age
multiplied by 100
41
what was DAVID WECHSLER's (1955) contributions to intelligence
believe in two problems with current tests
1. distinction between chronological and
mental age is less informative in adults
2. recognized need for greater fairness
when testing non-English speakers
42
what were the 3 subtests WECHSLER created
1. wechsler adult intelligence scale
2. wechsler intelligence scale for children
3. wechsler preschool and primary scale of
intelligence
43
what was CATTELL & HORN's contributions to intelligence
broke down SPEARMAN's g-factor analysis into two distinct abilities
1. crystalline intelligence = ability to apply previously learned knowledge to current problems
2. fluid intelligence = ability to deal with problem solving situations without any previous knowledge
44
define the Flynn effect
an observed rise in average IQ scores throughout the world overtime
45
define nerve conduction velocity (NCV)
the speed with which electrical impulses are transmitted along nerve fibers and across synapses
46
define neural efficiency hypothesis
believes smarter individual's show lower brain activity than less smart individuals during tests of low to moderate cognitive difficulty
47
define brain entropy
the number of neural states/neural configurations a brain can access during a task
48
define electrophysiological studies
modest relation between IQ scores and speed of processing
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CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 11
50
define instincts and instinct theory
instincts = inborn behavior tendencies
theory = behavior is motivated by instincts that are inborn and activated by environmental stimuli
51
define drive reduction theory
behavior is motivated by biological needs to maintain the body in a state of balance or equilibrium
52
define arousal theory
behavior is motivated by the need to achieve optimum levels of arousal
53
define Yerkes-Dodson law
believe ideal performance on a task occurs when the arousal level is optimized to the difficulty level of the task
54
define incentive theory
behavior is motivated by internal/intrinsic or external/extrinsic incentives or rewards
55
primary incentives vs secondary incentives
primary = rewards/punishments that are innate
secondary = cues that are viewed as rewarding as a result of learning about their association with other events
56
define intrinsic vs extrinsic motivation
intrinsic = engaging in behaviors for the satisfaction of doing it
extrinsic = engaging in behaviors due to the influence of factors outside ourselves
57
define modern evolutionary psychology theory
people are motivated to engage in behaviors that promote survival advantages
58
define the set point theory
biologically determined standard around which fat mass is regulated
if gaining/losing weight higher/lower than set point the body will naturally decrease/increase energy levels tor return to set point
set point may be changed by long periods of over/undereating
59
what are the signals that start a meal
1.decline in blood glucose
2. liver converts stored nutrients into glucose
3. blood glucose rises
4. produces a drop-rise patter in glucose
all helps brain regulate hunger through signals
60
what signals end a meal
1. stomach and intestinal distention
2. CCK and peptides released by the small intestine to the bloodstream travel to the brain
61
define leptin
a protein produced by fat cells
important in regulating the amount of food eaten over long periods of time
62
lateral hypothalamus vs ventromedial region of the hypothalamus vs paraventricular nucleus
LH = region of the hypothalamus that helps signal thirst and hunger
VHM = region of the hypothalamus that signals fullness/satiety
PVN = various neurotransmitters involved in eating
63
define the dual center theory of motivation
believes activity in one area serves to inhibit the area that serves the opposite function
64
what are MASTERS & JOHNSON's 4 phases of the human sexual response
1. excitement = begging of arousal, sexual desire peaks
2. plateau = breathing/pulse increases, muscles tense
3. orgasm = muscle tension, blood pressure peaks --> cerebellum
4. resolution = muscles relax and heart rate returns to normal --> men have refractory period
65
what was HELEN KAPLAN's contributions to sexual responses
1970's sex therapist
introduced concept of desire as necessary in the beginning of the sexual response cycle
66
androgens vs estrogen/progesterone
androgens = male sex hormones produced by the testes and adrenal glands and female adrenal glands
estrogen = female sex hormones produced in the ovaries
67
conscious vs unconscious motivations
conscious = motivations that people are aware of and can verbalize
unconscious = motivations that people are unaware of and cannot verbalize
68
define thematic apperception task
asks people to describe an ambiguous scene
the story they generate gives psychologists a window into how that individual sees the world around them and their unconscious thought process
69
define implicit association task
asks people to associate two things together (ie. object and emotion/moral judgement)
assesses an individuals association's between two concepts as an indication of their unconscious motivations
70
hedonic principle vs avoidance motivation vs approach motivation vs loss aversion
hedonic = we avoid painful experiences and approach pleasurable ones
avoidance = desire to avoid the experience of a negative outcome following a behavior
approach = desire to experience a positive outcome following a behavior
loss = tendency to be motivated more strongly to avoid a loss than to achieve a gain
71
what are the 4 components of emotion
1. physiological = changes in bodily arousal
2. cognitive/feeling = subjective appraisal/interpretation of feelings and surroundings
3. physical behavior = expression of emotion through verbal and non-verbal channels
4. emotional behavior = characteristic over expressions
72
define facial electromyography
person is exposed to an emotionally charged stimulus causing facial muscles to contract --> a facial EMG measures the contractions
unpleasant stimulus = greater muscle activity in frowning
pleasant stimulus = greater muscle activity is smiling
73
define the James Lange theory of emotion
proposes that felt emotions result from physiological changes
- body informs the mind
- need body feedback to feel emotions
74
define the Cannon Bard theory of emotion
believes that the subjective experience of emotion and the activation of the sympathetic nervous system occur simultaneously
- body reacts physically and emotions form
independently of the body's reaction
75
define Schachter and Singer's two factor theory of EMOTION
believes an emotional state is a function of both physiological arousal and cognition
we feel different emotions with different intensities
- intensities come from body's reaction
- cognitive appraisal determines emotions
76
define the cognitive mediational theory of emotion
believes cognitive interpretations & appraisals of events are the keys to experiences of emotions
77
define facial feedback theory of emotion
believes that subjective experiences of emotion are influenced by sensory feedback from facial muscular activity/efference (sensory feedback from facial muscular activity)
78
define vascular theory of emotional feedback
believes that tensing facial muscles alters temperature of blood flow
cooling --> positive effect
warming --> negative effect
79
CHAPTER 13
CHAPTER 13
80
define social psychology
the branch of psychology that deals with how the individual is affected by others
81
define social cognition
the way in which people perceive and interpret themselves and others in their social world
82
define the chameleon effect
nonconscious mimicry of others that involves automatically copying others behaviors without realizing it
83
central vs peripheral route persuasion
central = changing attitudes by going directly through the rational mind, influencing attitudes with evidence and logic
peripheral = changing attitudes by going around the rational mind and appealing to fears, desires, and associations
84
what is the ABC model of attitudes
believes attitudes have 3 components
1. affective = how we feel towards an object
2.behavior = how we behave towards an object
3. cognitive = what we believe about an object
85
define cognitive dissonance
a state of emotional discomfort people experience when they hold two contradictory beliefs or hold a belief that contradicts their behavior
86
define dissonance theory
FESTINGER & CARLSMITH 1959
when our behavior changes our attitudes
87
define the self perception theory
suggest that when people are uncertain of their attitudes they infer what the attitudes are by observing their own behavior
88
define the scapegoat theory
the observation that when bad things happen, prejudice offers an outlet for anger by finding someone to blame
89
define the just world fallacy vs vivid cases
fallacy = believe that justice generally happens and people get what they deserve
vivid = dramatic examples may be overrepresented in memory
90
what is social identity theory
emphasizes social cognitive factors in the onset of prejudice
three processes
1. social categorization = person affiliates with a particular group to figure out how to act/react in the world
2. social identity = person forms an identity within the group
3. social comparison = group member compares the group favorably with other groups, derives a sense of positive well being
91
foot in the door vs door in face technique
foot-in-door = getting someone to agree to a small request and following up with a larger one --> bond is forged so requestee is more incline to grant second request
door-in-face = making an absurd request that will clearly be turned down and following with a more modest request --> feel guilty turning down first request so more likely to comply with second request
92
what is the appeal to fear technique
credible source sends message and makes receivers truly believe that something bad will happen if they don't comply with request
must provide explicit recommendations for change
93
define dispositional vs situation attributions
dispositional = internal attributions, believe behavior is caused by persons inner traits
situational = external attributions, believe behavior is caused by aspects of the situation
94
define fundamental attribution error
tendency to use dispositional attributions to explain the behavior of others
95
define the actor observer effect
discrepancy between how we explain others behaviors dispositionally, vs how we explain our own behaviors situationally
96
define self serving bias
tendency people have to attribute their success to internal causes and their failures to external ones
97
normative vs informational social influence
normative = conform because they don't want to rock the boat, and want to fly under the radar
informational = believe the group knows more than they do, conform because they think they are wrong and know less
98
define the 4 types of tasks
additive = members must perform parallel actions
- productivity increases with group size
conjunctive = members are only as productive as the weakest member
disjunctive = requires a single solution, most competent member is likely to provide the solution
- larger groups = more productive
divisible = simultaneous performance of several different activities --> different strengths of group members complement one anotehr
- larger groups more effective
99
define social facilitation vs loafing
facilitation = the presence of others enhances performance
loafing = people exert less effort on collective tasks than they would an individual task
100
define group polarization vs goupthink
polarization = intensification of an initial tendency of individual group members group about by group discussions
think = form of faulty group decision making that occurs when group members strive for unanimity and the goal overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action
101
what are the 5 key factors that lead to liking someone
1. similarity
2. proximity
3. self disclosure
4. situational factors
5. physical attractiveness
102
define sublimated sexual energy
FREUD
a transformation of sexual desire into a more socially acceptable form
103
define STERNBERG's triangular theory of love
believed that relationships change overtime and peak at different points
love is composed of 3 elements
1. intimacy
2. passion
3. commitment
104
what were STERNBERG's 4 types of love
romantic = high intimacy, little commitment
companionate = high intimacy + commitment, low passion
consummate = high on all three
empty = high on commitment only
105
what are the 4 key brain regions in social functioning
1. *orbitofrontal cortex* = involved in social reasoning, reward evaluation, reading others and eliciting emotional states
2. *ventromedial prefrontal cortex* = processing of rewards/punishments, interpreting non-verbal social info, making social/moral assessment's and empathy
3. *insula* = empathy and reading others, activated when we observe others in pain
4. *amygdala* = helps identify the emotional facial expressions of other people and pay attention to stimuli that may be unpredictable, rewarding, or punishing
106
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 14
107
define the biopsychosocial model in terms of health
argus physical illnesses are not only caused by biological factors but also psychological factors
108
define health psychology
concerned with how psychosocial factors relate to the promotion and maintenance of health, and with the causation, prevention, and treatment of illness
109
what is the social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
assigns a numerical value (100 = most stressed, 0 = least stressed), to 43 major life events to measure stress
a higher score leads to greater physical and psychological problems
110
define the 3 types of conflict
1. *approach/approach* = occurs when a person must choose between two equally desirable options
2. *avoidance/avoidance* = occurs when a person must choose between two equally undesirable options
3. *approach/avoidance* = occurs when any available choice has both desirable and undesirable qualities
111
define HANS SELYE's general adaptation syndrome
a three stage response to stress
1. *alarm* = first exposed to threat, resistance to stressful event is reduced because preparing for it physiologically
2. *resistance* =body attempts to stabilize itself --> body is vulnerable to disease of adaptation due to impaired immune function
3. *exhaustion* = resistance gives way to exhaustion, body is depleted of energy --> if threat persists organ damage or death may occur
112
what did RICHARD LAZARUS contribute to health psychology
believed emotion is aroused by an environmental event and personal factors
also believed in two types of appraisal that affect how we experience stress
1. primary = appraisal of stressor --> determines how sever it is --> impacts how we attempt to deal with it
2. secondary = appraisal of ones personal resources and ability to cope with a stressor --> can increase/decrease the threat level
113
explain the explanatory style and stress
the characteristic manner in which we explain events can make a difference in how we appraise and respond to stressors
optimistic = recognize positive features of stressful situations
pessimistic = gloomier appraisal affecting their stress reactions
114
define FRIEDMAN & ROSENMAN's 4 personality types
*type a* = characterized by competitiveness, impatience and anger --> interact with the world in a way that causes continual stress
*type b* = less aggressive, more relaxed, and less hostile than type A --> experience lower levels of stress
*type c* = characterized by difficulty in expressing or acknowledging negative feelings --> vulnerable to stress and turn anger inwards
*type d* = characterized by negative affectivity (ie. worry, gloominess, and social inhibition) --> have a number of health implications
115
define repressive vs problem focused vs emotion focuses coping styles
repressive = consistently denying negative feelings, try to push such emotions out of awareness
problem-focused = focused on dealing directly with the stressor (ie. changing the stressor)
emotion-focused = focused on changing ones feelings about the stressor
116
define cognitive REappraisal
finding a way to reinterpret the negative aspects of an uncontrollable situation so they are less upsetting
117
define psychosomatic diseases
medical illnesses caused by an interaction of psychological and biological factors
coined in the 1960s
118
define psychoneuroimmunology
an area of study focused on links between stress, the immune system, and health
119
distress vs eustress
distress = stress caused by unpleasant situations/circumstances
eustress = the optimal level of stress needed to promote physical and psychological health
120
define inoculation
exposing oneself to a low level of stress in a controlled situation to improve later performance in a more stressful situation
