PS102 Midterm Flashcards
1
Q
CHAPTER 1
A
CHAPTER 1
2
Q
define empiricism
A
FRACIS BACON
view that all knowledge originates in experiences
3
Q
define voluntarism
A
will is the ultimate agency in human behavior
believe behavior is motivated and that attention is focused for explicit purposes
4
Q
define psychoanalytic theory
A
believe human mental processes are influenced by the competition between unconscious forces and conscious forces
SIGMUND FREUD
5
Q
define cognitive psychology
A
studies mental processes as forms of information processing and the ways in which information is stored and operated in our minds
ULRIC NEISSER
6
Q
define cross-cultural psychology
A
the study of what is generally/universally true about human beings regardless of culture
7
Q
what are the 3 branches of psychology
A
academic = research/instructions
applied = applying to practical problems
clinical/counselling = abnormal psychology and interventions
8
Q
what are the 4 shared values of psychology
A
- theory driven
- empirical
- multilevel
- contextual
9
Q
CHAPTER 2
A
CHAPTER 2
10
Q
what are the 2 shared beliefs of sciences
A
- universe operates according to natural laws
- these laws are discoverable and testable
11
Q
deductive vs inductive reasoning
A
deductive = broad basic principles applied to specific situations
inductive = small specific situations to more general truths and principles
12
Q
define hypothetico-deductive reasoning
A
scientists begin with an educated guess based on previous research about how the world works and then begin to design small controlled observations to support/invalidate their hypothesis
13
Q
define pseudo-psychology or pop psychology
A
argue that psychological principles can provide the answers to all of life’s major questions –> tend to have hidden goals
a form of psychology not based on the scientific method but takes on the appearance of science
14
Q
define operationalize
A
to develop a working definition of a variable that allows you to test it
15
Q
define descriptive research methods
A
studies that allow researchers to demonstrate a relationship between the variables of interest without specifying a casual relationship
16
Q
define the Hawthorne effect
A
participants improve or modify their behavior because they are aware they are being observed/studied
not a result of intervention
17
Q
define double-blind procedures
A
a study in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows what treatment or procedure the participant is receiving
18
Q
define the three types of correlation
A
positive = on average scores on two variables increase together
negative = on average scores on one variable increase as scores on another decrease
perfect = two variables are exactly related, low, medium, and high scores on both variables are aways exactly related
19
Q
define standard deviation
A
statistical index of how much scores VARY in a group
20
Q
correlational research vs experimental research
A
correlational = no manipulation, research measures two variables to test their relationship
experimental = researcher manipulates a variable and compares them (use inferential statistics)
21
Q
measures of central tendency vs variability
A
central tendency = a numerical value that represents the center of the distribution
- ie. mean
variability = a numerical value that represents how different the scores within a group are from each other
- ie. standard deviation
22
Q
define t-tests vs f-tests
A
t-tests = inferential statistic used for testing the statistical significance of two groups
- if t is big p will be small!
f-tests = inferential statistic used to test the statistical significance of two or more groups
23
Q
define effect size
A
the strength of the relationship between two variables
24
Q
CHAPTER 4
A
CHAPTER 4
25
define a cross-sectional design
a research approach that compares groups of different aged people to one another
26
define longitudinal design
a research approach that follows the same people over a period of time by administering the same tasks or questionnaires and seeing how their responses change
27
define cohort sequential deign
designed to look at how individuals from different age groups compare to one another and to follow them over time
28
define maturation
the unfolding of development in a particular sequence and time frame
29
define epigenetics
changes in gene expression that are independent of DNA sequences of the gene
30
genotype vs phenotype
genotype = persons genetic inheritance
phenotype = the observable manifestations of a persons genetic inheritance
31
define codominance
when in a heterozygous combination of alleles both traits are expressed in the offspring
32
discrete trait vs polygenic trait
discrete = results as the product of a single gene pairing
polygenic = manifests as the result of the contributions of multiple genes
33
proximodistal vs cephalocaudal pattern
proximodistal = growth and development proceed from the center to the extremities
cephalocaudal = growth and development proceeds from top to bottom
34
define rooting, grasping, moro and babinski
*rooting* = touch cheek, infant sucks --> feeing help
*grasping* = press palm, infant grasps --> infants safety
*moro* = startle infant, infant flails arms --> helps hold on to caregiver when support is lost
babinski = stroke foot, infants toes spread --> unknown
35
what are the 4 stages of cognitive development according to JEAN PIAGET
1. *sensorimotor* = 0-2 y/o, understand world through senses + begin to develop language
- 6-8 months = develop object
permanence
2. *preoperational* = 2-7 y/o, world is symbolic, mental images/words, pretend play
- egocentric, scale errors, and dont
understand conservation
3. *concrete operational* = 7-11 y/o, can perform basic mental operations, understand conservation + tangible problems but difficulty with abstract problems
4. *formal operational* = 11+ y/o, think logically about concrete + abstract problems, able to form/test hypotheses
36
assimilation vs accommodation - PIAGET
assimilation = the inclusion of new information or experiences into pre-existing schemes
accommodation = alteration of pre-existing mental framework's to take in new information
37
define information processing theory
how children learn, remember, organize, and use information from their environment
study what children CAN do
38
define violation of expectation
test object permanence
study infants and toddlers heightened reactions to an unexpected event after habituation
39
define scaffolding
developmental adjustments that adults make to give children the help they need
- not so much that they fail to move
forward
40
define the zone of proximal development
the gap between what a child can accomplish alone and what they can accomplish with help from others
41
what are the 4 temperaments (CHESS & THOMAS)
1. easy = cheerful, regular routines, open to change
2. difficult = irritable, negative reactions to change
3. slow to warm up = less active/responsive, withdraw when change occurs
4. unique = unique blends of characteristics from above 3 categories
42
define the 4 attachment styles
1. *secure* = explore with mother and upset when gone, 60%
2. *anxious/avoidant* = unresponsive and indifferent, 15%
3. *anxious/ambivalent* = strong reaction to mother leaving yet mixed emotions when returning, 10%
4. *disorganized/disoriented* = infant is confused and contradictory, 15%
43
define the q-sort approach
observes of parent-child interactions place descriptions of various attachment behaviors into 9 piles, frequent and infrequent behavior's separated
provides a fluid estimate of the child's general attachment patterns
44
what are the 4 parenting styles
1. *authoritative* = sensitive to child's needs, nurturing, encourages autonomy
- high self esteem, cooperative + self
control
2. *authoritarian* = cold, rejecting, demanding
- low self esteem, anxious, aggressive
3. *permissive* = accepting but overindulgent and inattentive
- impulsive, disobedient, dependent,
low initiative
4. *uninvolved* = emotionally detached, depressed, little time/energy
- anxious, poor communication and
anti-social
45
what is KOHLBERG'S stage theory of moral development
1.*preconventional* = morality center's on what you can get away with
2. *conventional* = morality centers on avoiding others disapproval and obeying rules
3. * postconventional* = morality determined by abstract ethical principles
46
define cellular clock theory
suggests we age because our cells have built in limits on their ability to reproduce
47
define wear and tear theory
suggests we age because use of our body wears it out
48
define free radical theory
suggests we age because special negatively charged oxygen molecules become more prevalent in our body as we get older
this destabilizes cellular structures and causes aging
49
what did DANIEL LEVINSON believe about aging transitions
early life transition -->early adulthood --> middle life transition --> middle adulthood
50
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 5
51
define olfactory
smell
52
define somatosensory
touch, heat, pain and pressure/damage to skin
53
define gustatory
taste
54
define sensory transduction
process of converting a specific form of environmental stimuli to neural impulses
55
threshold vs absolute threshold vs difference threshold
threshold = the point at which the magnitude/intensity of a stimulus initiates a neural impulse
absolute = the minimal stimulus necessary for detection by an individual 50% of the time
difference = minimal difference between two stimuli necessary for detection of a difference between the two
56
define signal detection theory
believe the response to a signal depends on an individuals ability to differentiate between the signal and noise and on their response criteria
57
bottom up vs top down processing
*bottom* = perception that proceeds by transducing environmental stimuli into neural impulses that move into successively more complex brain regions
*top* = perception processes led by cognitive processes (ie. memory/expectations)
58
define the olfactory bulb
the first region where olfactory (smell) information reaches the brain on its way from the nose
59
ageusia vs hyposmia vs anosmia vs auras
ageusia = inability to taste
hyposmia = reduced ability to smell
anosmia = inability smell
auras = hallucinations involving the sensory system before/during migraines/headaches or seizures
60
what is Meissner's Corpuscles
transduce information about sensitive touch and are found in hairless regions of the body
have sensory receptors that convert physical stimuli about sensory touch
61
define Merkel's Discs
transduce information about light to moderate pressure on the skin
contains sensory receptors that convert information about light to moderate pressure on the skin
62
what are Ruffini's end organs
located deep in the skin and register heavy pressure and movement of joints
contains sensory receptors that respond to heavy pressure and joint movement
63
what are Pacinian Corpuscles
buried deep in the skin and respond to vibrations and heavy pressure
64
what is the gate control theory of pain
believe certain patterns of neural activity can close a gate to keep pain information from travelling to parts of the brain where it is perceived
65
what is familial dysautonomia
the inability to detect pain or temperature as well as the inability to produce tears
66
define neuropathies
blocks pain sensations arising from the persons extremities
nerve dysfunction
67
what is the tympanic membrane
the eardrum
sound waves enter the outer ear and deflect the eardrum
68
what are the ossicles
tiny bones in the ear
malleus, incus, and stapes
69
what is the oval window
membrane separating the ossicles and inner ear
deflections causes a wave to form in cochlea
70
define cochlea
fluid filled structure in inner ear
contains hair cells
71
define basilar membrane
structure in cochlea where hair cells are located
72
what is frequency theory
different sound frequencies are converted into different rates of action potentials or firing in our auditory nerves
high frequency = more rapid firing
73
define place theory
differences in sound frequency activate different regions on the basilar membrane
the regions on the basilar membrane sends inputs to the brain which are encoded according to the place along the membrane where the input originated
74
conductive deafness vs nerve deafness
conductive = a break in the various processes by which sound is transmitted through the inner ear
nerve = results from damage/malformations of the auditory nerve in the brain
75
what is the retina
specialized sheet of nerves in the back of the eye containing the sensory receptors for vision
76
define photoreceptors
the sensory receptor cells for vision located in the retina
77
rods vs cones
rods = photoreceptors responsive to levels of light/dark
cones = photoreceptors responsive to color
78
what is the optic nerve
bundle of axons of ganglion ells that carries visual information from the eye to the brain
79
what is the fovea
center of the retina
contains only cones, vision is most clear
80
what is the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
3 different receptors for color and each type of receptor responds to a different range of wavelengths of light
one for yellow/red
one for green
one for blue/purple
81
define opponent process theory
color pairs work to inhibit one another in the perception of color
result of activity in the lateral geniculate nucleus (in the thalamus)
82
what is prosopagnosia
specific kind of visual agnosia
cant recognize faces due to damage to parts of the 'what' pathways
83
what is hemi-neglect
damage to the 'where' pathways
unable to see one side of the visual field
84
binocular vs monocular
monocular = visual clues about depth and distance that can be perceived using information from only one eye
binocular = requires both eyes
85
interposition vs motion parallax
interposition = an object blocks part of another from our view, see the blocked object as farther away
motion = requires that the observer be moving, the relative movement of objects that are stationary against their background gives us an idea about their relative distance
86
what is retinal disparity
the slight difference in images processed by the retinas of each eye
87
define perceptual constancies
top-down tendency to view objects as unchanging, despite shifts in environmental stimuli we receive
88
what is strabismus vs amblyopia
strabismus = misalignment of eyes, can result in visual loss --> born or caused
amblyopia = partial/complete loss of vison due to abnormal development of brains visual cortex in infancy
- one eye focuses better than the other
89
kinesthetic sense vs vestibular sense
kinesthetic = receptors in cell muscles respond if squeezed and shape is changed by movement, tell us whether we are still pr moving in a direction without having to look
vestibular = movement of the fluid in our inner ears detected by hair cells that gets shifted when our inner ear fluid moves
- provides information about our body position, matches visual info provided by our eyes
90
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 8
91
encoding vs storage vs retrieval
encoding = the recording of information in our brain
storage = retention of information for later use
retrieval =recovery of information when we need it later
92
what is the information processing model
believes information must pass through 3 stages of mental functioning to become firmly planted into memory
1. sensory memory
2. working memory
3. long term memory
93
define sensory memory
brains retaining a sensory image - less than a second - when first confronted with a stimulus
help keep items we have experienced briefly alive a bit longer
has a large capacity but anything not transferred is lost
94
define iconic memory vs echoic memory
visual sensory memory - small copy of the visual event we just saw
auditory system that holds information for a short time
95
short term vs working memory
*short* = a storage location where stimuli could be held for a brief period of time
- Atkinson and Shiffrin multi-store model of
memory
- holds 5-9 items at once
*working* = different systems responsible for processing the different kinds of information an individual is consciously working on - keeps it available for immediate access
- Baddeley and Hitch
- holds 5-9 items at once
96
explain the 3 subsystems of working memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch
1. central executive = supervisory system,
allocating/prioritizing resource's and info
2. phonological loop = process spoken/written info (little voice)
-visuospatial sketchpad = keeps track of
images and spatial locations for
navigation (inner eye)
3. episodic buffer = links together information from other parts of working memory and creates links to time/order and long-term memory
97
define central executive function
way of maintaining attention, refers to processing information as it relates to goal directed behavior
98
define executive attention
responsible for overseeing the maintenance of goals and controls interference when a person is engaged in complex cognitive tasks
99
define long term memory
the system that can retain a seemingly unlimited number of pieces of information for an indefinite period of time
100
define memory stores
storing information until something causes a disruption or loss of the memory
101
define parallel distributed processing (PDP) OR connectionist model
believes new information immediately joins other previously encountered and relevant information to help form/grow networks of information
memory stored in a network of associations through our brain
102
define rehearsal
conscious repetition of information in an attempt to make sure the information is encoded
103
define spaced practice effect vs massed practice
spaced = facilitated encoding of material through rehearsal situations spread out over time
- ie. studying material weekly and reviewing
closer to an exam
massed = cramming
104
define semantic code
cognitive representation of information or an event based on the meaning of the information
ie. link new things we learn to things we have already memorized based on shared meaning
105
define mnemonic devices
technique used to enhance the meaningfulness of information as a way of making them more memorable
106
define schemas
knowledge bases that we develop based on prior exposure to similar experiences or other knowledge bases
107
define memory span
maximum number of items that can be recalled in the correct order
typically 5-9
108
define chunking
grouping bits of information together to enhance ability to hold that information in working memory
109
explicit vs implicit memory
explicit = memory that can be consciously brought to mind (ie. middle name)
implicit = memory that a person is not aware of (ie. learned motor behaviors, skills, and habits)
110
semantic memory vs episodic memory
semantic = memory of general knowledge of the world
episodic = memory of personal events of episodes from their life
111
define the levels of processing model
process information to shallow or deeper depths
information can be superficially processed or have symbolic significance
greater depth = more likely to be recalled later
112
primacy vs recency effect
primacy = better at recalling first section of a list than middle/end due to them being encoded into working memory
recency = items at the end of a list are still in working memory and have less interference by other words causing them to be better recalled
113
define priming
activation of one piece of information, which in turn leads to activation of another piece, and ultimately to the retrieval of a specific memory
like linking
114
recognition vs recall tasks
recognition = asked to identify whether or not they have seen a particular item before
recall = asked to produce information using no or few retrieval cues
115
define context (in terms of memory)
the og location where you first learned a concept/idea
makes it more likely to be able to recall information late when in the same location you learned it in
116
what is the encoding specificity principle
a theoretical framework
believes memory retrieval is more efficient when the information available at retrieval is similar to the information available at the time of encoding
117
define state dependent memory
memory retrieval facilitated by being in the same state of mind in which you encoded the memory in the first place
118
define flashbulb memories
detailed and near permanent memories of an emotionally significant event or the circumstance's surrounding when we learned of the event
119
decay theory cs interference theory
*decay* = suggests memories fade due to neglect/failure to access them over long periods of time
*interference* = forgetting is influenced by what happens to people before/after they take information in
120
proactive interference vs retroactive interference
*pro* = competing information that is learned before the forgotten material
- new info interferes with old info
*retro* = learning of new information that disrupts access to previously recalled information
- old info interferes with new info
121
define source misattribution
remembering information but not the source causing us to remember information from unreliable sources as true
122
define memory consolidation
the process by which memories stabilize in the brain
123
define potentiation
synchronous networks of cells firing together
124
define long term potentiation (LTP)
repeated stimulation of certain nerve cells in the brain increases the likelihood that the cells will respond strongly to future stimulation
125
define prospective vs retrospective memory
*pro* = ability to remember content in the future
*retro* = ability to remember content from the past
126
define amnestic disorders
organic disorders (occurred organically) in which memory loss is the primary symptom
127
define retrograde amnesia vs anterograde amnesia
*retro* = inability to remember things that occurred before an organic event
*anterior* = ongoing inability to form new memories after an amnesia-inducing event
128
define neurofibrillary tangles
twisted protein fibers found within cells of the hippocampus and certain other brain areas
129
define senile plaques
sphere-shaped deposits of a protein that form in the spaces between cells in the hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and certain other brain regions and some blood vessels
130
organic disorders vs dissociative disorders
organic = physical causes of memory impairment is identified
dissociative = disruption in memory lack a clear physical cause
