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From Flashcardlet > PSYC 201 > Flashcards

PSYC 201 Flashcards

0
Q

Pseudoscience

A

-uses scientific terms to substantiate claims without using scientific data

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1
Q

Scientific Skepticism:

A

-means that ideas must be evaluated on the basis of careful logic and results from scientific investigations

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2
Q

What are 4 goals of scientific research?

A
  1. To describe behaviour
  2. To predict behaviour
  3. To determine the causes of behaviour
  4. To understand or explain behvaiour
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3
Q

Covariation of cause and effect:

A

-when the cause is present the effect occurs
OR
-when the cause is not present, the effect does not occur

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4
Q

Temporal Precedence:

A
  • is a temporal order of events of which the cause precedes the effect
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5
Q

Alternative Explanation

A

-nothing other than a casual variable could be responsible for the observed effect

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6
Q

Parsimony

A

-is when the least complex theory is most desirable if multiple theories are equally successful in explaining the same phenomenon

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7
Q

Hypothesis:

A

-statement or claim about how two characteristics or variables relate to one another

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8
Q

Define the term “science”

A

-is a method of inquiry that generates knowledge about the world through the development of testable hypotheses that are evaluated by objective observation

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9
Q

Variable:

A
  • any characteristic that can take one value across a set of objects
  • any dimension along which a set of objects differ
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10
Q

Constant:

A

-any characteristic that does not take on more than one value across a set of objects

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11
Q

What is the difference between quantitative or qualitative variables?

A

Quantitative : vary in amount
WHEREAS
Qualitative : differ in type or category

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12
Q

Discrete variable:

A

-no meaningful values between the posts on a scale

Ex] the number of children parents have

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13
Q

Continuous variable:

A

-meaningful values between points on a scale

Ex] temperature

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14
Q

Person/ subject variable:

A

-something you measure within the participant or subject

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15
Q

Situation/ stimulus variable:

A

-being able to manipulate something such as age within the context of your experiment

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16
Q

Independent variable

A

Presumed cause

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17
Q

Dependent variable

A

Presumed effect

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18
Q

Manipulated variable:

A

-takes at least two values and make changes to them to see their effects on DV

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19
Q

Measured variable:

A

Is considered the DV as you measure the IV effect on it

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20
Q

Define the difference between hypothetical and non-hypothetical constructs:

A

-Hypthetical: has no clear existence of variable but it is inferred
Ex] anxiety

-Non-hypothetical construct: when you can physically see the variables

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21
Q

Mediating variable :

A
  • aka intervening variable

- helps us understand “WHY” there is an effect upon another variable

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22
Q

Moderating variable:

A
  • aka interaction variable

- helps us assess how much of a relationship there is between variables

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23
Q

Nuremberg Code:

A
  • developed in response to horrific human experimentation during World War ll
  • emphasized the importance of informed consent
  • paved way for updating the international codes of ethics
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24
Q

What is the Belmont report?

A
  • defined the principles and applications that have guided more detailed regulations
  • has informed the American Psychological Association of Ethics Code
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25
Q

What are the 3 basic ethical principles?

A
  1. Respect for persons
  2. Concern for welfare
  3. Justice
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26
Q

Describe the Tuskegee Syphillis Study:

A
  • 1928 group wanted to set up research about the deep southern African American workers
  • thought they could track their health, these mean were diagnosed with Syphillis but were not told about it
  • continued into 1972
  • these men were denied treatment
  • this led to the codification of a number of key principles
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27
Q

What are the risks for conducting an experiment?

A
  • physical harm
  • stress
  • loss of privacy
  • false hopes
  • humiliation, loss of self-esteem
  • withholding benefits of research
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28
Q

Describe a positive linear relationship:

A

-increase in the values of one variable are accompanied by increases in the values of the second variable

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29
Q

describe a negative linear relationship

A

-increases in the value of one variable are accompanied by decreases in the values of the other value

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30
Q

Describe a curvilinear relationship :

A

-increases in the values of one variable are accompanied by both increases and decreases in the values of the other variable

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31
Q

Correlation coefficient:

A

-is a numerical index of the strength of a relationship between variables

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32
Q

What are 2 problems preventing researchers from making caused claims when using a non-experimental method?

A
  1. It can be difficult to determine the direction of cause and effect
  2. There is the third variable problem
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33
Q

Internal validity:

A

-refers to the ability to draw accurate conclusions about casual relationships from data

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34
Q

Construct validity:

A

-refers to the adequacy of the operational definition of variables

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35
Q

Describe face validity:

A
  • is to suggest that the measure appears to accurately assess the intended variable
  • involves only judgment
  • not very sophisticated
  • not sufficient to conclude that a measure has construct validity
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36
Q

Content validity:

A

-based on comparing the content of the measure with the theoretical definition of the construct

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37
Q

Predictive validity:

A

-a measure to predict some future behaviour

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38
Q

Concurrent validity:

A

-is assessed by research that examines the relationship between the measures and a criterion behaviour at the same time

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39
Q

Convergent validity:

A

-is the extent to which scores on the measure in question are related to scores on other measures of the same construct or similar constructs

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40
Q

Discrimination validity:

A
  • when the measure is not related to variables with which it should not be related
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41
Q

What is a Nominal scale?

A

-categories with no numeric scale

Ex] males/femals

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42
Q

What is an Ordinal scale?

A

-rank ordering
-numeric values limited
-intervals between items not known
Ex] birth order

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43
Q

Describe the interval scale:

A

-numeric properties are literal
-assume equal intervals between values
-has no true zero
Ex] intelligence

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44
Q

Describe the ratio scale:

A

-zero indicates absence of variable measured

Ex] reaction time, age, frequencies of behaviour

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45
Q

What are the 3 categories of operational definitions for DV?

A
  1. Self-report
  2. Behavioural
  3. Psychological
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46
Q

Calling effect:

A

-the independent variable might appear to have no effect on the dependent measure only because participants quickly reach maximum performance level

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47
Q

Floor effect:

A

When a task is too difficult that hardly anyone can preform

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48
Q

Single-blind procedure:

A

-the participant is unaware of whether a placebo or the actual drug is being administered

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49
Q

Double-blind procedures:

A

-neither the participant nor the experimenter knows whether the placebo or actual treatment is being given

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50
Q

What are 4 advantage to operational definitions?

A
  1. Objectivity
  2. Repeatability
  3. Precision
  4. “Correct” vs. “Useful” definitions
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51
Q

What are some disadvantages to operational definitions?

A
  1. Jargon

2. Coldness

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52
Q

Underlying variable:

A
  • probably describing som form of psychological process which then leads to the creation of an operation defintion
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53
Q

Define what a “confound” is:

A
  • varies something in addition to or in conjunction with the IV
  • is something we don’t mean to manipulate
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54
Q

What is “sledge hammer manipulation”?

A

-is using to strong of a manipulation for what is being measured

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55
Q

What is a 2 by 2 factorial design?

A

-when you have two IV

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56
Q

Systematic observation:

A
  • refers to the careful observation of one or more specific behaviours in a particular setting, usually contrived by the researcher
  • less global than naturalistic observation
  • used more often from a quantitative than qualitative perspective
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57
Q

Coding SYstem:

A
  • choice of a specific setting in which the behaviours of interests can be measured
  • purpose is to summarize qualitative observations
  • needs simplicity in order to work properly
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58
Q

What are 3 issues with systematic observation?

A
  1. Reliability
  2. Reactivity
  3. Sampling
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59
Q

Case study:

A
  • is a description of an individual

- valuable for informing us of conditions that are rare or unusual

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60
Q

Archival research:

A
  • involves using previously complied information to answer research questions
  • allows researchers to study interesting questions, some of which that can’t be studied in any other way
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61
Q

What are the 2 problems with archival observation?

A
  1. Records may be difficult to obtain

2. Have no control over how the data was collected or recorded

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62
Q

Content analysis:

A

-is the systematic analysis of existing documents

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63
Q

Survey research:

A

-uses questionnaires and interviews to ask people to provide information about themselves

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64
Q

Response set:

A
  • is a tendency to respond to all questions from a particular perspective rather than to provide answers that are directly related to the question
  • most common respond set= Social disability
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65
Q

Social desirability:

A

-leads the individual to answer in the most socially accepted way

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66
Q

Rating scales:

A

-have numbers from 1-5 that are accompanied by a feeling with that intensity

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67
Q

Labelling response is defined by:

A

-having number 1-5 but only the intensity of 1 and 5 are labeled

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68
Q

Semantic differential scale:

A

-is a way to measure the meaning poeple ascribe to concepts

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69
Q

What is a focus group?

A
  • an interview with a group of about 6-10 individuals brought together for a period of usually 2-3 hours
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70
Q

Panel study:

A

-is the same as a longitudinal study

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71
Q

Confidence interval:

A
  • is a range of plausible values for the population value

- problem with this is a sampling error as you truly do not have the entire populations opinions

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72
Q

Sampling frame:

A

Is the actual population of individuals from which a random sample will be drawn

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73
Q

Probability sampling:

A
  • where each member of the population has specific probability of being chosen
  • Simple random sampling
  • Stratified random sampling
  • Cluster sampling
74
Q

Non-probability sampling:

A
  • you don’t know the probability of any particular member of the population being chosen
  • “Haphazard” sampling
75
Q

Random sampling:

A

Is whenever people are randomly selected from a specific population to participate in a study

76
Q

Stratified random sampling:

A

Is when the population is divided into subgroups and then random sampling is used to select members from each stratum

77
Q

Cluster sampling:

A

-is sampling a population that has no list of members

Ex] people who work in regional health care agencies

78
Q

Purposive sampling:

A
  • purpose is to obtain a sample of people who meet some predetermined criteria
  • this is a form of non-probability sampling
79
Q

Quota sampling:

A
  • chooses a sample that reflects the numerical composition of various subgroup sin the population
  • form of non-probability sampling
80
Q

Independent group design:

A

-different participants are assigned to each level of the independent variable using random assignment

81
Q

Repeated measure design:

A

-participants are repeatedly measured on the dependent variables after being in each condition of the experiment

82
Q

Order effect:

A
  • the order of presenting the treatments affects the dependent variable
83
Q

Practice effect;

A

-is an improvement in performance as a result of repeated practice with a task

84
Q

Fatigue effect:

A
  • the disorientation and performance as the research participant becom bred, tired or distracted
85
Q

Contrast effect:

A
  • occurs when the response to the second condition in the experiment is altered because the two conditions are contrasted to one another
86
Q

Matched pairs design:

A

-first match people on a participant characteristic

87
Q

What is the biggest difference between the types of experiments?

A

Control

88
Q

Naturalistic observation:

A

-a descriptive method in which observations are made in a natural setting

89
Q

Observer bias:

A

-subjective rating of behaviour

90
Q

Reactivity:

A

The fact of observing/ measuring changing the behaviour being measured/ observed

91
Q

Contrast characteristics of naturalistic observations to experimental methods:

A

Naturalistic observations:
-Getting ideas
-Discovery orientated
-Suited to identifying most useful questions
-Fertile source of hypotheses
-Weak basis for distinguishing cause from coincidence
-Minimal control (low internal validity)
-Maximum naturalness (high external validity)
VS.

The experimental method:

  • Testing ideas
  • Confirmation- orientated
  • Suited to getting the answers
  • Rigorous means of testing hypotheses
  • Designed to reveal causal relationships
  • Maximum control (high internal validity)
  • Minimum naturalness (low external validity)
92
Q

Confounding variable

A

a variable that is not controlled in a research investigation, in an experiment, the groups differ on both the IV and th confounding variable

93
Q

What are 6 ways to control a confounding variable?

A
  1. Experimental control
  2. Elimination
  3. Randomization
  4. Counterbalancing
  5. Matching
  6. Statistical control
94
Q

Describe Doob and Kirshenbaum’s 1972 experiment

A
  • Subjects: Ontario Science Centre
  • Stimulus materials: 400 word description of B&E case
  • IV- 4 conditions (n=12/group)
    1. Just description
    2. Description+ told accused did not testify
    3. Description+ told accused did testify but “did not give any important evidence” although he admitted to 5 prior B&E’s and 2 PSP’s
    4. Description+ record, and limiting instructions
  • DV: 7-point scale
95
Q

What are the 2 problems with causal conclusions

A
  1. The direction of cause and effect

2. The “third factor” problem

96
Q

What are 3 techniques for controlling third factors in non-experimental research:

A
  1. Holding constant
  2. Statistical control
  3. Matching
97
Q

Compare experiments, non-experiments and naturalistic observations:

A

Experiemtns

  • High degree of control
  • High internal validity and generally low levels of external validity
  • Reveal causation

Non-experiments

  • Limited amount of control
  • Used for predictions
  • Variable validity

Naturalistic observations

  • No control on variables
  • Used for descriptions
  • Have high external validity
98
Q

What are 2 limitations to a case study form of research?

A
  1. Low-external validity

2. Can’t lead to any casual conclusions - only help ask questions

99
Q

What are the two types of sample surveys:

A
  1. Descriptive: estimate the frequency or average value

2. Relational: establish pattern of association

100
Q

What are the limitations to sample surveys?

A
  • theoretically unlimited
  • cannot make absolute claims
  • one sample may not represent the entire population
101
Q

Describe the 4 types of reliability :

A
  • Test-retest reliability (assessed a number of times)
  • Alternate forms of reliability (assessed a number of times)
  • Internal Consistency reliability (aka split-halves, odd-even, iterm-total, ect.)
  • Inter-rather/ inter-observer reliability
102
Q

Describe a Factorial Design

A
  • is a design with more than one independent variable
  • ## all levels of each IV are combined with all levels of other IV’s
103
Q

What are the two types of information given by factorial designs?

A
  1. Shows the main effect (the effect that the IV has on the DV alone)
  2. Shows the interaction
104
Q

Describe an IV x PV design:

A
  • is a factorial design that includes both an experimental independent variable and. Non-experimental participant variable
  • allows researchers to investigate how different types of people respond to the same manipulated variable
  • is not fully a true experiment
105
Q

What is the simple main effect?

A

-is an analysis that examines the mean differences at each level of the independent variable

106
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A
  • when different groups of people are assigned to each of the four conditions
107
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A
  • same individuals participate in all conditions
108
Q

What is a mixed factorial design?

A
  • includes both independent groups (between subjects) and repeated measure (within subjects) variables
109
Q

What is the term “cell” sometimes referred to as?

A

It can refer to one condition in an experiment, or to a combination of conditions in a complex factorial design

110
Q

What is a Post-Test only group?

A
  • aka simple random groups / independent groups design / between groups design
  • test participants after being exposed to the IV
  • objective is to observe a difference between DV’s
111
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a Pretest- Posttest Design?

A

ADVANTAGES

  • clear idea of how people are feeling or functioning before the effects of the manipulation
  • can help to determine groups before the manipulation

DISADVANTAGES

  • create some demand characteristics as sit could reveal the hypothesis
  • due to having to test people twice resources and time become limited
112
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a Matched Random Group?

A

ADVANTAGES

  • increases internal validity
  • lowers non-equilivent group confounds

DISADVANTAGES

  • time / cost
  • may alert people of the hypothesis
113
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages to a repeated measures design?

A

ADVANTAGES

  • fewer participants needed
  • no differences between groups on any variable present
  • equal groups
  • sensitivity increases, can detect effects that may otherwise go unnoticed

DISADVANTAGES

  • within-subject confounds
  • order effect
  • carry over effects
114
Q

What is an order effect?

A
  • is the choice of what effect the group is exposed to first and how it could effect them within a repeated measures design
115
Q

What is a solution for the order effect presented in a repeated measures design?

A

Counter Balancing: where you split the group and half experience level 1 of IV first than level 2 while the other half of the group experiences level 2 of the IV first than level 1

116
Q

What are the three forms of confounds?

A
  1. Between subjects
  2. Within subjects
  3. Situational confounds
117
Q

Can within subject confounds be reasonably well controlled?

A

Yes, through using a repeated measures design

118
Q

Is there a variable that is strongly related to the DV, on which participants can be matched?

A

Yes, if you use matched random groups

119
Q

What are some of the different types of order effects?

A
  • practice effect
  • fatigue effect
  • carryover effect
  • contrast effect ( you make comparison between levels)
120
Q

Describe a single case experimental design:

A
  • research designs in which the effect of the independent variable is assessed using data from a single participant
  • usually in clinical, counselling, or educational settings
121
Q

What is a baseline?

A
  • within a single case design, it is the participants behaviour during a control period before introducing the manipulation
122
Q

Describe a reversal design:

A
  • a single case design in which the treatments is introduced after the baseline period and then withdrawn during a second baseline period
  • also known as withdrawal design
123
Q

Describe multiple baseline design:

A
  • observing behaviour before and after a manipulation under multiple circumstances (across different individuals, behaviours, or different settings) to demonstrate the treatments effectiveness
124
Q

What is program evaluation?

A
  • research designed to evaluate programs

Ex] social reforms (innovations that are designed to produce certain changes or outcomes in a target population)

125
Q

Describe a quasi-experimental design :

A
  • approximates the control features of true experiments to infer that a given treatment did have its intended effect
  • allows us to examine the impact of an independent variable
  • lower internal validity
  • used only when true experiments are impossible to conduct
126
Q

Describe a one-group Posttest-only design:

A
  • a quasi-experimental design
  • has no control group and no pretests for comparison
  • poor design in terms of internal validity
127
Q

Describe a one-group Pretest- Posttest design:

A
  • the effect of the IV is inferred from the Pretest-Posttest difference in a single group
128
Q

What is a history effect?

A
  • is a threat to internal validity

- refers to outside events that are not part of the manipulation that could be responsible for he results

129
Q

What is maturation effect?

A
  • a threat to internal validity

- the possibility that an naturally occurring change within the individual is responsible for the results

130
Q

What are testing effects?

A
  • threat to internal validity

- where taking a Pretest changes behaviour without any effect on the IV

131
Q

What is instrument decay?

A
  • threat to internal validity

- the possibility that a change in the characteristics of the measurement instrument is responsible for the results

132
Q

What does “regression towards the mean” mean?

A
  • is a principle that extreme scores on a variable tend to be closer to the mean when a second measurement is made
133
Q

Describe a non-equivalent control groups design:

A
  • a quasi experiment
  • where there are non- equivalent groups of participants in the different experimental groups
  • no pretests
134
Q

Describe a Interrupted time series design:

A
  • a design in which effectiveness of a treatment is determined by examining a series of measurements made over a extended time period both before and after the treatment is introduced
  • treatment is not introduced at a random point in time
135
Q

Describe a control series design:

A
  • is an extension of the interrupted time series quasi experimental design
  • there is no comparison or control group
136
Q

Describe a cross-sectional design:

A
  • a developmental research method in which persons of different ages are studied at only one point in time
  • conceptually similar to an independent group design
137
Q

What are cohort effects?

A
  • a cohort is a group of people born at about the same time exposed to the same social events
138
Q

What is the sequential method?

A
  • a combination of the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs to study developmental research questions
139
Q

Describe a retrospective study:

A
  • experiments in reverse
  • look for two groups that might be similar on some form of interest
  • objective is looking to identify potential IV
140
Q

What does increasing the number of levels to an IV do?

A

-reveals the shape of the function relating the IV and DV

141
Q

What does increasing the number IV’s do?

A
  • reveals information about interactions

- interactions is shown on a graph as two lines intersecting

142
Q

How do you calculate the main effect of a 2x2 factorial design?

A
  • you add the sides both horizontally and vertically + divide it by the number of boxes included
143
Q

Why do we do group research?

A
  • minimize potential confounds

- increase generalizability

144
Q

Describe a multiple baseline design across subjects:

A
  • treatment is introduced after a different number of baseline periods for different subjects
145
Q

Describe a multiple baseline design across behaviours

A
  • treatment of a single subject is applied at different to,Es for different behvaiours
146
Q

Describe a multiple baseline design across situations:

A
  • the treatment of a single subject is introduced at different points in different locations (ex] home, work, ect.)
147
Q

Describe a longitudinal design:

A
  • happens within the same group of people over a long period of time
  • multiple tests
148
Q

What are inferential statistics?

A
  • Helps assist with the sampling problem
149
Q

What is the nominal scale of measurement?

A
  • differences on a nominal scale represent differences in categories, not quantitative properties (ex] gender, or types of cheese)
  • no rank order
150
Q

What is an ordinal scale of measurement?

A
  • difference in values on an ordinal scale suggest a difference in rank order
  • but you don’t specify the differences between rankings
151
Q

What is an interval scale of measurement?

A
  • do specify the values between points on a scale

- ex] temperature

152
Q

What is a ratio scale of measurement?

A
  • is the same as an interval scale, but also possesses a true zero point
  • ex] weight, speed
153
Q

Define what Continuous data is:

A
  • numeric data
  • interval or ration scale for measurement
  • ex] male and female IQ differences
154
Q

Define what frequency data is:

A
  • typically nominal

- interest in how many people fall into a specific category

155
Q

Define bivariate data:

A
  • looking at the relationship between two continuous variables
  • in real or ratio scales
  • ex] relationship between height and weight
156
Q

What type of graph would a nominal variable use?

A
  • a bar graph
157
Q

What kind of graph would a continuous variable use?

A

A histogram as it shows the mean and how it creates its mountain shape

158
Q

What type of graph would bivariate data use?

A

A scatter plot

159
Q

Mean:

A
  • is the average for each group measure
160
Q

Median:

A

Middle score of a data set

161
Q

Mode:

A

most frequent occurring score within a data set

162
Q

Variance:

A

How far each score is from the mean

163
Q

Standard deviation:

A
  • square root of the variance
164
Q

Frequency distribution

A
  • indicates the number of participants who receive or select each possible score on a variable
165
Q

What does descriptive statistics allow?

A
  • allows researchers to make precise statements about the data
166
Q

What does the Central Tendency tell us?

A
  • what the sample as a whole or on the average is like
167
Q

Criterion variable:

A
  • when researchers are interested in predicting some future behaviour
168
Q

Predictor variable:

A

When researchers are interested in predicting some future behavior on a person score on some other variable

169
Q

Multiple correlation:

A
  • is used to combine a number of predictor variables to increase the accuracy of prediction of a given river ion or outcome variable
170
Q

Multiple regression:

A
  • models the unique relationship between each predictor and the criterion
171
Q

External validity:

A

Is the extent to which the results can be generalized to other populations and settings

172
Q

Exact replications:

A
  • is an attempt to replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained
  • replication has been stressed as a way of over coming ant problems of generalization that occurs in a single study
173
Q

Conceptual Replication:

A
  • is the uses of different procedures to replicate a research finding
174
Q

Meta analysis:

A
  • researcher combines the actual results of a number of studies
  • this is another technique for comparing large number of studies in an area
175
Q

Parameter:

A
  • data analytic quantity computed on population data

-

176
Q

Statistic:

A
  • data analytic quantity computed on sample data
177
Q

Sampling problem:

A
  • variability amongst samples drawn from the populations
178
Q

What are statistics used for?

A
  • a mathematical solution to the sampling problem
179
Q

What is the Null hypothesis?

A
  • claim that there are no significant differences between groups in a particular study
180
Q

Stat[crit]:

A
  • value of your statistic that defines the acceptance and rejection regions
181
Q

Stat[obs]:

A
  • value of your statistic computed from your sample data
182
Q

What are the 6 steps to hypothesis testing?

A
  1. Make a claim about the population
  2. State hypothesis
  3. Fix and specify decision rule
  4. Take a sample, calculate results
  5. Make a decision
  6. Estimate effect size
183
Q

What are the 10 steps in designing a course of research?

A
  1. Hypothesis
  2. Research approach
  3. Population /sample
  4. Research design
  5. Confounding variables
  6. Subsidiary questions (other DV’s?)
  7. Data analysis
  8. Statistical inference
  9. Problems
  10. Generalizations and extensions

From Flashcardlet (20 decks)

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