PSYC1003 Development Flashcards
(179 cards)
1
Q
Development
A
Refers to changing over a lifespan from childhood to adolescence to adulthood
2
Q
Development Process
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ESCPPG
1. Emotional
2. Social
3. cognitive
4. Perceptual
5. physical motor
6. Genetics
3
Q
Freud
A
- Founding father of psychoanalysis
- a true developmentalist
- Theory of personality
4
Q
3 forces making up personality
A
- ID
- EGO
- Superego
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Q
ID def
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- Unconscious seeker (Please already operative when born and directs energy to pre-programmed stages and does not care what others think)
- unconscious
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Q
Ego def
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- rational conscious mechanism to be socially acceptable and develops next
- Conscious and preconscious
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Q
Superego def
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- moral agency (personality and ideal self and develops last)
- Conscious, preconscious, unconscious
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Q
Preconscious
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something that is not currently aware but can be brought into consciousness at any point
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Q
Levels of consciousness
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- conscious
- Preconscious
- Unconscious
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Stages of Personality (Freud)
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- Oral (Birth-1year)
- Anal (1-3 years)
- Phallic (3-6 years)
- Latency (6+ years)
- Genital (puberty)
(if there is a problem in the stages it affects them later on)
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Q
Ratman
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Obsessive fear that his father and fiancee will be tortured which stemmed from childhood experiences
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Nature def
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Development proceeds according to a genetically-programmed schedule (innate)
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Maturation def
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- the unfolding of innate abilities according to genetic programs
- behaviours appear to follow fixed schedules
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Nurture def
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Children’s development is shaped by their environment
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Watson argued for
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Nurture
- anyone can learn to be a professional at something if given the right moment
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Continuous (continuity) growth
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Gradual Growth
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Stage-like (Discontinuity) growth
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stages of growth (childhood, adulthood etc)
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Nurture argues for
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continuity
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Nature argues for
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discontinuity
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Universal development
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People grow in the same pattern of development
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Culturally-mediated approach
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Aspects of environment across the globe leads to different development outcomes
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Q
physical play vs pretend play
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Asian families are family oriented (physical play) , Western cultures are more individualists (pretend play)
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Cross-sectional Studies
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Compare different age groups on a DV of interest (compares data in cohorts of ages)
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Longitudinal studies
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- Assess the same individuals over time so there is age-related changes rather than age differences
- This can be minimised by having multiple cohort effects longitudinally
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Methods for Studying Development
1. Observation
2. Experimental methods
3. Questionnaire methods
4. Case Studies
5. Archival Records
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Observation def
Child is observed with or without an adult in various situations e.g. play skills and language acquisition
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Experimental methods
Endless variety of experimental techniques
Explicit - overt responses
Implicit - covert responses (often physiological)
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Mcgurk effect
mismatching between what is heard and what is seen
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Questionnaire methods
Parents filling out questionnaires about their children's behavior
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Case Studies
Detailed observations of one child
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Archival Records
Large datasets are available on the internet
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Piaget
- Piaget argued that the types of mistakes children made showed their cognitive development
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Constructivism
children construct knowledge themselves in response to experience and Piaget believed that
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Process of Building Schemas
1. Assimilation
2. Accomodation
3. Equilibration
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Assimilation def
Incorporation of incoming information into concepts they already understand
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Accomodation
Alteration of a concept in response to a new experience
e.g. dog and cat are different
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Equilibration
Process by which children strike balance between assimilation and accommodation
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Overgeneralisation
e.g. everyone is dad until they realise not all humans are the same
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Types of Knowledge
1. Equilibrium
2. Disequilibrium
3. Equilibrium'
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Equilibrium
All knowledge is accommodated in harmony e.g. seeing a new dog
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Disequilibrium
new knowledge does not fit with current system (Accomodation)
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Equilibrium'
Knowledge structures (schemas) altered to accomodate new information
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Central properties
Children in different ages think in qualitative changes (step changes in they way they think)
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Types of central properties
1. qualitative changes
2. broad applicability
3. Brief transitions
4. Invariant sequence
5. Universality
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qualitative changes
Think of morality in terms of consequences rather than intent
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broad applicability
domain general theory of development (reached cognitive ability ceiling)
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Brief transitions
Childrens don’t just go into a different stage as it takes a little bit of time between the styles of cognitive stages
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Invariant sequence
Children pass through the development stages in the same order
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Universality
This theory applies to all children everywhere (no cross-cultural differences)
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Stages of Development
1. sensorimotor stage (0-2 years)
2. Pre-operational stage (2-7 years)
3. Concrete operational stage (7-12 years)
4. Formal operational stage (12+ years)
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sensorimotor stage
- Children are limited to what they can sense and see (perceptual experience)
- 6 substages
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Substage 1 (0-1 month)
- Simple reflexes and perceptual abilities upon which intelligence is built
- E.g. sucking (an example of accommodating for different objects)
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Substage 2 (1-4 month)
- Primary circular reactions:
- Random movements that lead to unexpected pleasant outcome
- E.g. accidentally touching mouth leads to sucking)
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Substage 3 (4-8 months)
- secondary circular reactions:
- Sensory stimulation like dropping toys and learning the physical properties of objects
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Substage 4 (8-12)
- Infants display first intentional behavior leads to respond to obstacles that might obstruct goals
- object permanence develops
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object permanence
- An object still exists even if it is out of sight
- Try and find toy in first place even though they are shown its in the second place
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substage 5 (12-18 months)
- Tertiary circular reactions
- Active experimentation with the world (dropping toys repetitively)
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Substage 6 (18-24)
- Ability to create mental representations independent of their perceptual and motor experience
- Develop semiotic (symbolic) function: e.g. banana as a symbol of a telephone (symbolic play)
- deferred imitation
- Develop vocab
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Deferred imitation
Create a symbolic memory of something and then do the same thing later on
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Pre-operational period (2-7 years)
- Period of rapid symbolic development:
- Language development
- Drawing development
- Behaviour of egocentrism and centration
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drawing development
- Scribbling - fortuitous realism (bad at symbolic drawings therefore behind other domains like language development) (2-4 years)
- Preschematic stage (4-7 years)
failed realism - unrelated
Intellectual realism - draw what they know
- Schematic stage (ages 8-9)
Visual realism (draw what they see)
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Egocentrism
- the tendency to perceive the world solely from their own point of view
- They may assume common ground (assume others have the same knowledge they do e.g. who their parents are)
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Centration
tendency to focus on a single, perceptually striking feature of an object or event
e.g. putting the same amount of water into different glasses
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Concrete Operational Stage (7 - 12 years)
Children begin to reason logically about concrete features of the world
There is more than one dimension that they have to think about which is shown to be challenging but achievable
e.g. pendual task
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Pendual task
- children given frame, sets of strings, and weights
- children try figure out which variables affect pendulum
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Formal Operational stage (12+ years)
Characterised by ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically
In pendulum experiment are aware that all variables have an influence and test this systematically
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Piaget’s Legacy
Piaget provokes debates on:
- Stage-like versus continuous development
- Children’s active construction of knowledge
- Children’s symbolic understanding of the world
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Piaget's Legacy weaknesses
1. Children are not as consistent as theory predicts
2. Infants and young children are more competent that Piaget realised
3. Piaget underestimate social processes in cognitive development (he thoughts there no cross culture development and that all his ideas where universal which is not true all the time)
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Vygotsky
- Russian development psychologist (1896 - 1934)
- Socio-cultural approach - how the culture of a social group is transmitted to the next generation (process of transmitting values overtime)
- Vygotsky argued that children are a product of their programing while Piaget thought the child developed by themselves
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Intersubjectivity (Vygotsky)
shared mutual understanding of each other's minds for learning to occur
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Human Pedagogy
Tomasello (2009) - human species has two unique characteristics crucial to existing and creating complex cultures
1. Natural inclination to teach others
2. Inclination to attend to and learn from other
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Natural inclination to teach others
Scaffolding
General ‘pedagogical orientation’
Often driven by children e.g. pointing
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Inclination to attend to and learn from other
Children assume that people do things for good reason and observe this and intentionally imitate it
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Zone of Proximal Development
The distance between children’s development level as determined by their ability to solve problems on their own
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Three zones of proximal development
1. what the child can do unassisted
2. what the child can do with a guardian
3. what the child can't do even with assistance
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Language and thought
A cultural tool to shape our thought processes and pass down knowledge and the way we go about problem solving
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3 stages of private speech
Stage 1: Child’s behaviour controlled by others statements
stage 2: Children begin to engage in private speech overtly (out loud) not always but usually
Stage 3: Children private speech is internalised (internal dialogue) and important for cognitive development
(Development disorders such as ADHD and DLD show delayed development of private speech)
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Cross-Cultural Variation
Sociocultural theorists argue that:
- Processes involved in development are universal e.g. scaffolding
- Content (symbolic systems) of what children learn differ cross-culturally
e.g. chinese vs american adults answer questions differently based on the fairy tales their were taught as a child
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Applications (Educational implications of Piaget)
1. Childrens have distinct ways of thinking at different development stages (allowing us to predict if children can or cannot do something)
2. Children learn best when interacting with their environment, both mentally and physically (children learn best through active participation)
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Application (Educational impact of Vygotsky)
Children learn best from a knowledgeable other (do modern classrooms create this environment)
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Genetic Foundations
1. Nature - genetic foundations of behaviour (Genetics)
2. Physical variation - hair colour, height etc
3. Cognitive variation - IQ, language, memory
4. Behaviour variation - personality
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Psychology interfaces with genetics
Genotype + environment = phenotype
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Chromosomes
Each chromosome there are set of genes which organism function in either isolation or through interaction with other genes
46 chromosomes (22 pairs of autosomes, 2 sex chromosomes)
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Instances of inheritance of genes are either
1. Simple - involving one gene
Complex - polygenic
2.inheritance (more common and important)
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Dominant-recessive relationships
Many characteristics determined by a single gene pair
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Dominant gene
requires one copy of gene to reveal trait
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Recessive gene
requires two copies of a gene to reveal trait
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Huntington disease
- Nervous system deterioration after 40
- All carriers develop the disease
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genetic environment interaction
restricting environment then you are not affected by the bad gene
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Chromosomal abnormalities
A typical cell division during gamete formation resulting in genetic and phenotypic variations
Down syndrome (chromosome 21)
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Polygenic Inheritance
Developmental psychologists are not typically determined by singular genetic abnormalities
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Behaviour genetics
aims to determine the contributions of nature and nurture to behavioural diversity
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Heritability
the proportion of a given behaviour that is due to genetics rather than environmental factors
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Twin Studies
1. Identical twins - monozygotic
Same DNA (genetic + environment)
2. Fraternal twins - dizygotic
Same environment/different DNA
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Heritability Coefficient
Finding how much the differences in people are related to their genes
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Prenatal Development stages
(in the womb growth)
1. germinal (genetic make up and sex of the child)
2. embryonic (develops body parts)
3. foetal (develops brain and cognitive)
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Prenatal development (Teratogenic/external influences)
1.Pathogens
- Rubella
- HIV
- Other STI’s e.g. syphilis
2. Drugs
- Thalidomide (numerous birth defects)
- Genuine - deafness
- Aspirin - low birthweight and IQ
- Alcohol
e.g Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (passes through placenta) leading to negative effects on kids
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Cognitive development
The world is split into different categories and children have to understand it all in the development stage
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Conceptual Development
1. Category - A class of things or events in the world
- E.g. humans, animals, plants
- Categories we form are idiosyncratic
- As a community of speakers we agree on categories
2. Concept - A mental representation of a class of things or events
- Our internal knowledge of categories
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Children divide life into 3 categories
1. people
2. animals
3. inanimate objects
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Habituation and dishabituation paradigm
Refers to children being shown stimuli of different types of cats vs different types of animals
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perceptual dimensions infants attend to
- colour
- size
- movement
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hierarchical thinking def
- superordinate level - top level e.g. animal
- Basic level - middle level e.g. cat or dog
Subordinate level - lower level e.g. Siamese, pug
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Naive Psychology
Our understanding of three concepts to understand human behaviour
- Desire
- Beliefs
- Action
(desire and beliefs leads to action)
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3 properties of naive psychology
1. Many refer to invisible states e.g desires or beliefs but are still able to be understood
2. They are linked to each other in a cause-effect relationship with behaviour (actions are determined by beliefs and desires)
3. Naive psychology concepts develop very early in life
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traingular of attention
e.g. two people looking at the same thing after the child has pointed the external object out
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when does joint attention begin
around 12 months
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Theory of Mind
An organised understanding of how mental processes influence behaviour
e.g. 12 month olds can understand that actions are linked to desires
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children understanding desires and beliefs
2 year olds understand desires are subjective but don't understand beliefs determine action
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False Belief Task
e.g pencils being in smarties tub
Failure indicates children have difficulty understanding that people act according to belief (their representation of reality)
3 yr old - 25% pass
5 yr old - 70% pass
shows development of empathy
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Imaginary companions IC
typically found with more creative children
1/2 children will have an IC
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No imaginary companions (NIC)
less creative children
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Play
Non-serious activities in which children structure behaviour in idiosyncratic ways not necessarily related to reality
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Idiosyncratic
unusual behaviour
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types of play
- Social contingency e.g. peek a boo
- Object play e.g. lego
- Language play e.g. rhymes and babbling
- Physical play
- Fantasy or pretend play
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Personified object
believing objects like toys are real
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History of Research
children with IC's were described as having personality problems however that is due to samples gathered from special education units
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Characteristics of Children with IC's
- Up to 65% of children have an IC at development
- Most often first born and only children
- Generally between 3-9 years
- Girls more likely to have one
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Hybrid studies
Asking kid and parents to ensure consistency
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Pretend Play Functions
- loneliness
- issues of competence
- blame avoidance
- response to trauma
- mean of communcation
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Domains of strength of IC's
1. Understanding of strength
2. Language
3. Creativity
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Understanding of strength (IC)
- Theory of mind (tested through false belief)
- Being able to take the perspective of someone else e.g. describing clown
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Language IC
better at retelling past events and narratives
better developed private speech as they talk to themselves so much
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Creativity (IC)
Illusion of Independent Agency (characters have their own state of mind and write themselves) which shows this goes through to adult hood
more creative when people have an IC
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aaNegative Associations of IC
- higher anxiety in IC children
- harder to teach as they think differently
- harder to trach
- can have fewer friends and lower wellbeing
- different from others
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Social development
Socialisation happens when we interact with members in our community
primary caregivers are agents of socialisation for the child
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Attachment def
Enduring ties of affection that children from their primary caregiver
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attachment includes
- Desire to be close with the caregiver
- Security derived from caregiver
- Feeling distressed when caregiver is absent
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Attachment is dynamic
it involved reciprocal interaction between child and caregiver
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Harlow's Monkeys
Took monkeys away from mothers and gave one mother that provided food and one mother that provided comfort
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Bowlby
Proposed an evolutionary theory of attachment
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Development of attachment
1. Can recognise their caregiver by 3 months
2. 5-6 months recognise across the room
3. 6-7 months show separation anxiety
4. Visual recognition is not only the reasoning as blind children have similar development
Maturational basis for attachment
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Individual Differences
Children systematically vary in their responses to separation
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4 types of attachment styles (Ainsworth)
1. secure
2. avoidant
3. Ambivalent (resistant)
4. Disorganised
(attachment behaviours do not cease once children become more independent)
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1. secure attachment (65%)
May or may not be distressed by separation; on reunion they actively approach their parent for comfort and support, reducing distress
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Avoidant
Usually not distressed by separation from parents; on reunion are slow to eek comfort from parent
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Ambivalent (resistant)
Usually distressed by separation; on reunion they approach parent for support but display anger and resistance to comforting
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Disorganised
Display greatest amount of insecurity; on reunion show confused behaviours such as looking away while parent holding them or dazed facial expressions
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Attachment style (Hazan and Shaver, 1987) impact on future
1. Secure
2. Resistant
3. Avoidant
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Secure Adult
show trust in reliability of romantic partners; find it easy to depend and be dependent on others
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Resistant Adult
Fear abandonment and often distrust their romantic partners' availability and commitment; jealous and preoccupied with emotional closeness
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Avoidant Adult
Avoid emotional dependence and deny attachment needs. have difficulty developing intimate relationship
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Attachment styles reacting to break up
1. secure - moderately upset
2. Resistant - surprise; greater depression
3. Avoidant - relief
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Peer relationships
Children have two significant but different sources of peer interaction: friends and siblings
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Friends are usually same-sex peers
- Only 5% of friendships are cross-sex
- Partly due to socialisation through systematic restrictions
- Partly genetic (Iervolino et al, 2005) twins are influenced in sex-typed behaviours
- Boys like rough play and chicks pretend play
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meaning of friendships changes with development
1. Young children (6 years and under) friends are transactional like giving each other toys
2. Middle childhood (7 - 12 years) understand friendship is a source of companionship
3. Adolescents - understand friendship as an intimate relationship
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Rejected children
disliked by peers
- Teased or ostracised
- Tend to have negative outcomes like low self-esteem and bad marks
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Neglected children
ignored by their peers
- Perform better academically than their popular peers
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Siblings
- share 50% of DNA
- Compete for resources e.g. food, family wealth etc
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Birth of sibling trauma
- increased dependency on the parent
- Increased anxiety
- Behavioural regression like wetting the bed
- Hostility to newborn child because they see them as a threat
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Birth-order effects
Every new birth - change in family dynamics
1st born - undivided attention of parents and less exposure to peers
2nd born - parental attention divided and will not get full attention from parents however parents are more skilled and have peer interaction
3rd born - parental attention divided even more with more peer interaction and parents even more experienced
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Early studies on birth order
that IQ was lower as there were more births
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Recent studies on birth order
there is no correlation between birth order and IQ
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Maternal Employment and assumptions
mothers in workforce gone from under 20% (1950's) to over 70% (2010's)
it was predicted that it would lead to latchkey children and decrease quality of maternal caregiving however this is not true
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Latchkey Children
has no parental supervision leading to increased delinquency
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Gottfried
quality of mother-child interactions does not diminish in working mothers
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Huston and aronson
Working mothers spend more time engaging infants in social interaction as they are making up for the time they did not see their child while at work
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Hoffman
Girls with employed mothers are more likely to reject traditional gender roles and therefore work harder academically
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Hoffman and Youngblade, 1999
More likely to be exposed to egalitarian parenting (Equal roles of parents) leading to greater feelings of effectiveness
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Gottfried et al, 2002
Children tend to have higher career aspirations if their mother is employed
Type of employment of the mother changes effect
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Dunfirom et al, 2013
3-5 year old children of mothers who work night shifts show increased rates of aggression and anxiety
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Han et al, 2010
Adolescents with mothers who work night shift have lower quality home environment as maternal presence is important
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Mothers working part time have
- They have fewer depressive symptoms
- Show more sensitive parenting and children show less externalising problems
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Effect of Child Care
With countries that have good child care there is no relationship between child care and problem behaviour, however in poor quality care predicts poor outcomes
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The most important factor is the quality of care
High quality care promotes development of cognitive abilities, language, and attention (NICHD, 2002)
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Influence of Media
Educational TV shows had beneficial effects on development
E.g. sesame street was associated with high vocabulary, with positive effects persisting through to high school (Anderson et al, 2001)
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Media violence has negative effect on children in 3 ways:
1. Seeing violent act results in social learning through imitation by the child
Bandura Bobo dolls - found that if a child sees an adult be violent then the child will follow
2. Viewing aggression primes children’s own aggressive thoughts, feelings, and tendencies
Have an aggressive frame of mind
3. Long term exposure leads to emotional desensitization
Exposure to violence typically results in unpleasant physiological arousal
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past perception on LGBT Parents
Queer rights to having children were taken away as it was thought that children couldn’t be properly raised by gay parents (Former senator Ron Boswell, 2012) however this is wrong
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children raised by LGBT parents
Strengths
Lower levels of
Social problems
Rule breaking
Externalising behaviour
Weaknesses
If children experience homophobia they internalise problems more
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Legislation
Ofosu et al, 2019 - legislation has mostly positive effect on attitudes from majority of society when looking at these minorities
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Develop intergroup Theory
Social identity theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) we enhance our self-concept through in-group favouritism
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Core processes of Prejudice
1. Establishing psychological salience of other attributed e.g. race
2. Categorising individuals by salient characteristics
3. Developing stereotypes and prejudices
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Stereotypes leading to prejudice
Cognitive processing into categorisation into stereotypes and prejudice (Allport, 1954)
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Automatic processing
Knowledge of cultural stereotype
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Controlled processing
Acceptance or endorsement of the stereotype
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Implicit level
unconscious bias towards a stereotype
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Explicit Level
conscious and deliberate attitudes towards a stereotype
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explicit and implicit attitudes with age
Explicit decreases with age, however implicit bias does not change with age
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Effects of Racism
Physiological Level - chronic stress leads to prolonged exposure to cortisol leads to inflammatory reactions that predispose individuals to chronic disease
E.g racial differences in infant mortality in USA
Psychological level - prejudice has negative effects on mental health
Members of minority groups can internalize negative stereotype leading to stereotype threat and fear of conforming to a negative group stereotype
E.g. I won't go to university so i do not conform to the stereotype of my group
