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From Flashcardlet > PSYCH 280 Midterm > Flashcards

PSYCH 280 Midterm Flashcards

0
Q

What is an oscilloscope ?

A
  • a device for visualizing electrical activity of nerve cells
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1
Q

How is membrane potential created and maintained?

A
  • created by the difference in concentration of extra cellular sodium and intracelular potassium
  • maintained by the action of the sodium potassium pumps moving two potassium ions inside the cell as three sodium ions are pumped out to maintain the negatively charged membrane inside the cell
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2
Q

Define resting voltage:

A
  • Vr
  • ranges from -30 to -80
  • is created by an unequal distribution of charged Ions across the cell membrane
  • sum of charges
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3
Q

What 2 forces seek to drive Vr to zero?

A
  • concentration gradients and random motion’

- electrostatic pressure [opposites attract, like repels]

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4
Q

What 2 properties of the cell membrane act to preserve Vr?

A
  • selective permeability to ions

- Na-K pumps

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5
Q

Voltage gated:

A
  • secondary effect of transmitter binding
  • basis for ‘action potentials’
    Evolved for communication in the brain
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6
Q

Temporal summation:

A
  • repeated activation of the same input over and over

-

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7
Q

Spatial summation:

A
  • the addition of two or more inputs from different locations occurring at the same time
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8
Q

Describe action potential:

A
  • is an all or nothing action and has a fixed amplitude
  • can propagate in either direction [anterograde(forward) or retrograde (backwards)] but usually flows only one way due to refractory period
  • action potentials depolarize the axon terminal, opening Ca+ channels
  • non-decrement
  • slower conduction
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9
Q

What chemical is necessary for transmitter release?

A

Ca++

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10
Q

Describe postsynaptic potentials

A
  • chemically gated
  • graded amplitude
  • Decremental current
  • fast conduction
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11
Q

Describe electrical synapses:

A
  • they do not use chemical messengers
  • allow gap junctions to permit electrical synapses
  • very fast
  • save metabolic energy
  • synchronization of neurons
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12
Q

Ionotropic:

A
  • channel-coupled or ligand-gated ion channels
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13
Q

Metabotropic

A

-second messenger coupled

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14
Q

Describe receptor subtypes:

A
  • may be different exogenous ligands
  • are named by number or exogenous ligands
  • may be inhibitory or excitatory
  • may be found in different brain regions that have completely different functions [thus why drug use may have ‘side effects’ ]
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15
Q

What are the primary fast neurotransmitters ?

A
  • amino acids

- glutamate and GABA

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16
Q

Define neuronodulators:

A
  • slower [metabotropic], non-directed synapses
  • longer effects
  • many types: monoamine [norepinphrine, dopamine, serotonin] and large peptides
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17
Q

Define GABA:

A
  • is an amino acid
  • fast
  • usually inhibitory
  • most widely used transmitter in the brain
  • multiple receptor subtypes
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18
Q

Define Glutamate:

A
  • fast
  • excitatory
  • multiple receptor subtypes
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19
Q

Describe acetylcholine :

A
  • is an amine
  • first neurotransmitter discovered
  • made from choline
  • originates in the brain stem and basal forebrain
  • involved in arousal, movement, memory, and attention
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20
Q

Describe norepinephrine:

A
  • monoamine
  • originates in the brain stem locus coeruleus
  • involved in arousal, attention, and emotion
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21
Q

Describe dopamine:

A
  • monoamine
  • originates in the midbrain ventral tegmentum area and the substantia nigra
  • involved in arousal, motivation/ reward and movement
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22
Q

Describe serotonin:

A
  • monoamine
  • originates in the brain stem raphe nuclei
  • involved in arousal and emotions
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23
Q

Peptide:

A
  • are chains of amino acids typically shorter than proteins
  • many types
  • almost always colonized with glutamate or GABA or fast transmitters
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24
Q

Purines-adenosine:

A
  • coffee works against this
  • too much of adenosine makes you want to sleep
    -is a by-product of metabolism
    -
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25
Q

What are the three steps from stimulus to perception?

A
  1. Reception
  2. Transduction
  3. Coding
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26
Q

Define the step of reception:

A
  • absorption of energy via specialized receptors
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27
Q

Define the step of transduction:

A
  • conversion of physical to electrochemical energy
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28
Q

Define the step of coding:

A
  • neural representation of stimulus through the action potential, frequency, pattern, direction, ect.
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29
Q

How does the brain recognize these distinct sensations?

A
  • intrinsic wiring
30
Q

Range refraction:

A
  • extends range of sensitivity
  • overcomes ceiling effects created by an action potential refractory periods
  • range can be extended by using different receptors [somatosensory system and skin receptors
31
Q

Is there such thing as a relay neuron?

A

NO

32
Q

What does convergence determine within the visual system?

A

-acuity and sensitivity

33
Q

Do dolphins have a sense of smell?

A
  • no
34
Q

Do birds have a sense of smell?

A
  • typically weak
35
Q

How many olfactory sensory neurons do humans have ?

A

10 million

36
Q

How many odours can humans detect?

A

10,000

37
Q

How many olfactory sensory neurons do dogs have?

A

200 million

38
Q

What is a unique point of olfactory sensory pathaway?

A

-olfactory sensory pathways reaches cortex without thalami can synapse

39
Q

Describe olfactory bulb circuit:

A
  1. Receptor neurons
  2. Periglomerular cells
  3. Mitral/ tufted cells
  4. Granule cells
    - #2 and 4 make dendodendritic synapses with mitral cells
40
Q

Describe vomeronasal system:

A
  • 2nd olfactory system for smelling pheromones
  • airborne chemicals that trigger behavioural or physiological responses
  • primarily related to reproduction
41
Q

What was an early focus of research in developmental and systems neuroscience?

A

Vision

42
Q

How do objects get detected through the visual system?

A
  • system designed to detect and enhance contrast

- differences in brightness and differences in colour

43
Q

How is movement detected from the visual system?

A
  • enhances object recognition and visibility

- note species differences in sensitivity to movement speed

44
Q

How is irradiance using light for the visual system?

A
  • total amount of light, important for visual reflexes

- day length, important for daily and annual rhythms

45
Q

What are the 2 parameters of light that cause visual sensation?

A
  • wavelength

- amplitude

46
Q

Define wavelength :

A
  • visual system specialized to detect electromagnetic radiation in the range of 400-700 nanometers
  • reflect off objects scaled to human size
  • partly the basis for colour perception
47
Q

Define amplitude:

A
  • expressed as the height of a wave or number of photons/unit time
48
Q

What is a photon:

A
  • carries energy proportional to the radiation frequency

- a particle representing a part of light

49
Q

What is the optical function of the eye?

A
  • capture light

- project a detailed spatial image onto the photoreceptors at the back of the eye

50
Q

Describe the neural functions of the eye:

A
  • to Tranduce light

- process features of light stimulus

51
Q

When does “normal vision” occur:

A

-when light travels into the eye and all light rays align at the back of the eye

52
Q

What is myopia?

A
  • is nearsightedness: everything up close is blurry
  • occurs when light travels into the eye and the light rays overlap on another in the back of the eye
  • this can be corrected with a lens
53
Q

Describe the photopic system:

A
  • for high levels of light
  • 1 cone receptor per 1/2 ganglion cells, concentrated in the fovea
  • low convergence maximizes acuity at the expense sensitivity
  • density of cones may vary by factor of 3 across individuals
  • has wavelength sensitivity
54
Q

What is a recent discovery regarding mueller glial cells?

A
  • mueller glial cells act like fiber optic cables to channel light to cone cells; one mueller cell per cone photoreceptor
55
Q

Describe the scotopic system:

A
  • for low levels of light
  • 200 rod photoreceptors per ganglion cell
  • high convergence maximizes sensitivity at expense of acuity
  • some nocturnal animals are entirely scotopic
  • not sensitive to wavelength
56
Q

Describe the luminance detection system:

A
  • recent discovery of photosensitive ganglion cells
  • photon counting, no image formation
  • for daily and seasonal rhythms
  • has a very high convergence minimizing its acuity
57
Q

High convergence =

A

Low acuity

58
Q

Low convergence =

A

High acuity

59
Q

Define visual acuity and where it is highest and why:

A
  • the ability to discriminate two points in visual space
  • highest in the fovea
  • due to increase number of cones
  • due to low convergence
  • and due to light hitting the fovea having to go through fewer cells
60
Q

What do neurons in the retina do?

A

-electrophysiological mapping of receptive fields revealing functions of processing at each level of the visual system

61
Q

What are 3 steps in transfering light:

A
  1. Rod and cone receptors respond to spots of light; tranduce electromagnetic energy to electro-chemical signals
  2. InterneuronS integrate and filter these signals
  3. Ganglion cells send resulting information to the thalamus
62
Q

Describe spatial processing:

A
  • critical for identifying objects

- designed for detecting spots, lines, edges

63
Q

Describe temporal processing:

A
  • specialized to detect change[on/off]

- differences amongst species

64
Q

How does retinal wiring modify the visual stimulus?

A
  • adjacent neurons are mutually inhibitory [lateral inhibition]
    - > causes psychophysical illusions
  • enhances contrast between areas of different light intensity
65
Q

What is the lateral geniculate nucleus?

A
  • LGN
  • receptive fields are very similar to retinal ganglion cells
  • role may be to permit modulation of retinal input to the cortex such as attention
66
Q

What percent of neocortex responds to visual stimuli?

A

54% depending on the species

67
Q

What are the 3 visual systems in parallel?

A
  1. Parvocellular
  2. magnocellular
  3. pavo-magno
68
Q

Describe parvocellular visual system:

A
  • small receptive fields

- object recognition

69
Q

Describe the magnocellular visual system:

A
  • large fields
  • detects movement
  • spatial location
70
Q

Describe the parvo-magno visual system:

A
  • detects colour and brightness
  • based on effects of lesions in monkeys [lesions can result in failure to recognize objects or see movement]
  • similar effects seen in brain-damaged humans
71
Q

Describe the hierarchical model of pattern vision:

A
  • cortical visual cells are ‘feature detectors’
  • pattern analysis is conducted on edges of varying orientation
  • spatial processing produced increasingly complex receptive fields, culminating in so called “grandmother” cell
  • states that our preferred stimuli is bars or edges
  • porblems with this
    • > complex cells have stronger latencies than simple cells
    • > both complex and simple cells are innervated by the lateral geniculate nucleus
    • > “grandmother” neurons respond to the whole face, but not the features separately
72
Q

Describe the spatial frequency model of pattern vision:

A
  • the DeValois’ discovered that most cells respond to variations of light or dark per degree of visual space…ex] stripes
  • variations are effectively cycles that have a frequency
  • any complex cycle can be decomposed to a set of sine waves of particular frequencies
  • visual neurons are ‘tuned’ to a specific frequencies
  • two examples of support regarding this theory is : animal electrophysiology and human psychophysics

From Flashcardlet (20 decks)

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